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HAKSIZ FİİL Skip to content Hukuka aykırı olarak bir kimsenin şahsına veya mal varlığına zarar veren fiil.
Borcun en önemli kaynaklarından biri olan haksız fiiller hukuk sistemlerinde iki farklı şekilde ele alınmıştır. Mücerred metoda göre tedvin edilmiş sistemlerde haksız fiiller bir bütün olarak düşünülmüş ve hepsine ait ortak esaslar aynı başlık altında incelenmiş, farklı hükümler taşıyan haksız fiil türleri ayrıca ele alınmıştır. Çağımızda Kara Avrupası ve bunun etkisinde kalan hukuk sistemleri bu metodu benimsemiştir. Meseleci (kazüistik) metodu takip eden hukuk sistemlerinde ise haksız fiiller teker teker ele alınmış ve münferit bölümlerde sadece o haksız fiille ilgili esaslar incelenmiştir. İslâm hukuku bu ikinci grupta yer alır. Fıkıh kitaplarında haksız fiillerin muâmelât ve ukūbât bölümlerinin çeşitli kısımlarında yer alması da bunu gösterir. Geçmişte Roma hukuku, günümüzde İngiliz hukuku da haksız fiilleri meseleci metoda göre düzenlemiştir. İngiliz hukukunda haksız fiil hukukundan (law of tort) değil haksız fiiller hukukundan (law of torts) bahsedilir.
İslâm hukukunun klasik dönem literatüründe meseleci metotla tedvin edilmiş olmasının kaçınılmaz sonucu olarak bütün haksız fiilleri içine alan ortak bir terim mevcut değildir. Klasik kaynaklarda genel bir terim mahiyetini almamakla birlikte haksız fiilleri ifade etmek üzere “cinayet, cürüm, cerîme” kelimeleri kullanılmış, özellikle cinayet terimi zaman içinde oldukça geniş bir kapsam kazanmıştır. “Cinâyâtü’l-hayvânât”, hayvanların kişiye ve mala yönelik zararlı fiillerini ifade etmektedir. Aynı anlamda olmak üzere “itlâf” terimi de yaygın bir kullanıma sahiptir. Çağımızda Arapça olarak kaleme alınan İslâm hukuku eserlerinde Batı hukukunun etkisiyle haksız fiil anlamında “el-fi‘lü’d-dâr, el-amel gayrü’l-meşrû‘, el-a‘mâl gayrü’l-mubâha” gibi tabirler kullanılmaktadır. Fiilî tasarrufların en geniş bölümünü haksız fiiller oluşturduğundan fiilî tasarruf (et-tasarrufâtü’l-fi‘liyye) teriminin haksız fiil anlamında kullanıldığı da olmuştur.
Haksız fiiller meseleci metot içinde ele alınırken yine de bütün haksız fiillere has esaslar zamanla ortaya çıkmaya başlamış ve bunlar “el-eşbâh ve’n-nezâir”, “el-furûk”, “el-kavâid” türündeki eserlerde toplanmıştır. “Zarar izâle olunur” (Mecelle , md. 20); “Mübâşir müteammid olmasa da zâmin olur” (a.g.e. , md. 92); “Mütesebbib müteammid olmadıkça zâmin olmaz” (a.g.e. , md. 93); “Bilâ sebeb-i meşrû birinin malını bir kimsenin ahzeylemesi câiz olmaz” (a.g.e. , md. 97) gibi küllî kaideler bunlardandır.
İslâm hukukunda akdî sorumluluk ve haksız fiil sorumluluğu ayırımına benzer bir ayırım “damânü’l-akd” ve “damânü’l-itlâf” veya “damânü’t-tasarrufâti’l-fi‘liyye” şeklinde yapılmıştır. Ancak bu ayırımda bugünkü hukukta da olduğu gibi tedâhüllerin bulunduğunu, zarar verici fiillerin hem akdî sorumluluk hem de haksız fiil sorumluluğu çerçevesinde ele alınabileceğini unutmamak gerekir.
Bazı İslâm hukukçuları haksız fiil sorumluluğunun üç sebepten biriyle doğabileceğini, dolayısıyla bu tür sorumluluğun kaynağının üç olduğunu söylerler. 1. Mübâşere: Bir şahsa veya mala doğrudan bir fiille zarar verme. 2. Tesebbüb: Kusurlu davranışıyla bir zararın meydana gelmesine sebep olma. 3. Haksız zilyedlik. İslâm hukukçuları ilk iki türü itlâf sorumluluğu, üçüncüsünü de gasp sorumluluğu çerçevesinde değerlendirmişler, vedîa veya âriyet olarak alınan malın talep olduğu halde iade edilmemesini de bu son grup içinde mütalaa etmişlerdir.
Haksız fiilleri şahsa yönelik ve mala yönelik haksız fiiller şeklinde ikiye ayırmak mümkündür. Şahsa yönelik olanlar klasik fıkıh kitaplarının ceza hukuku (ukūbât) bölümünde yer alır. Bu tür haksız fiillerden cana ve vücut bütünlüğüne yönelik olanlar eğer kasten yapılmışsa, diğer unsurların da gerçekleşmesi şartıyla, suçlu işlediği fiilin misliyle yani kısasla cezalandırılır. Bu durumda ceza tam misliyle verilmiş bulunduğundan fâilin ayrıca hukukî sorumluluğu cihetine gidilmemiştir. Suçun unsurlarında eksiklik olması veya mağdurun yahut yakınlarının kısastan vazgeçmesi durumunda diyet ödenmesi söz konusu olur. Diyeti bazı bakımlardan ceza olarak kabul etmek mümkünse de onun tazminat karakterinin ağır bastığı görülür. Ancak tazminat miktarı genelde meydana gelen zararın miktarına göre şahıstan şahsa bir değişiklik göstermemekte, objektif ve eşit bir uygulamayı sağlama amacıyla haksız fiilin yol açtığı yaralanma ve sakatlanma türlerine göre belirlenmiş bulunmaktadır (bk. ERŞ ). Fakat bazı diyet türlerinde meydana gelen zarara göre tazminatın miktarının belirlenmesi de mümkündür (bk. HÜKÛMET-i ADL ). Şahsa yönelik haksız fiillerden namus ve şerefi haleldar edenlerin meydana getirdiği zarar maddî olmadığı için mal ile tazmini cihetine gidilmemiş, burada uygun bir ceza ile yetinilmiştir. İffete iftira (kazf ) suçu buna örnektir.
Mala yönelik haksız fiillerin önemli bir kısmı fıkıh kitaplarının muâmelât bölümünde yer alır. Bunların içinde başkasına ait bir malı zorla almak demek olan gasp önemli bir yer tutar. Gasp sorumluluğu, İslâm hukukunda mülkiyet hakkının korunması (malın dokunulmazlığı / ismet-i emvâl) prensibine uygun biçimde düzenlenmiştir. Buna göre başkasının malını gasbeden kimse onu ya iade ya da tazmin edecektir; tazmin sorumluluğundan herhangi bir şekilde kurtulması söz konusu değildir. Hatta malın nasıl olsa telef olacağını ispat etse dahi bundan kurtulamaz. Gasbedilen malın meselâ bir deprem veya bütün şehre yayılan bir yangın yahut sel felâketi sonucu telef olması buna örnek verilebilir. Bu anlayış, İslâm hukukunda benzeri görülmeyen ağır bir gasp sorumluluğu ortaya çıkarmıştır ki gasbın dışında hırsızlık ve yol kesme gibi haksız fiillerdeki sorumluluk da buna kıyasen belirlenmiştir. Gasp malî sorumluluğun yanı sıra cezaî bir sorumluluk doğurur, bunun çerçevesini diğer ta‘zîr suçlarında olduğu gibi devlet başkanı çizer. Hırsızlık ve yol kesme fiillerinin de hem cezaî hem hukukî sorumluluğu bulunmaktadır. Ancak bu suçların doğurduğu hukukî sorumluluğun kapsamı konusunda İslâm hukukçuları arasında farklı görüşler bulunmaktadır (bk. EŞKIYA ; HIRSIZLIK ).
Gasp dışında mala yönelik diğer önemli bir haksız fiil de başkasına ait bir malı hukuka aykırı olarak tahrip etmek demek olan itlâftır. İtlâf başlangıçta daha dar bir kapsama sahipken sonraları gittikçe genişlemiş ve sadece doğrudan bir fiille mala zarar vermeyi değil dolaylı bir fiille zarar vermeyi, eşyanın ve hayvanların zarar vermesi yahut bir işverenin yanında çalışanların zararlı fiillerini de içine almaya başlamıştır. Hatta zaman zaman insana verilen zararlar da itlâf terimiyle ifade edilmiştir. Böylece itlâf âdeta gasp, hırsızlık, yol kesme dışında mala yönelik bütün zararları içine alan bir genişliğe ulaşmış ve sonraki dönem fıkıh kitaplarında ayrı bir bölüm halinde ele alınmıştır.
İtlâfın kapsamının bu şekilde genişlemesi, İslâm hukukçularını bütün haksız fiillerle ilgili sorumluluk esaslarını itlâf çerçevesinde belirlemeye yöneltmiştir. Bu çerçevede haksız fiiller “doğrudan haksız fiiller” ve “dolaylı haksız fiiller” olarak ikiye ayrılmış ve doğrudan haksız fiillerde kusursuz sorumluluk, dolaylı haksız fiillerde ise kusurlu sorumluluk ilkesi benimsenmiştir. Böylece her iki sorumluluk türü arasında orta bir yol takip edilmiştir. Öte yandan kusursuz sorumluluğun arandığı doğrudan haksız fiil durumlarında fâilin tam ehliyetli olması veya en azından temyiz gücüne sahip bulunması şartı aranmamış, böylece akıl hastasının, gayri mümeyyiz küçüğün bu tür haksız fiillerin tazmin sorumluluğu doğrudan kendisine yüklenmiştir. Bu durumdaki kimselerin velileri ancak haksız fiilin oluşumunda teşvik, tahrik, ikrah gibi munzam bir role sahiplerse sorumluluk üstlenirler. Çünkü bu durumda haksız fiil dolaylı bir haksız fiil durumuna gelmekte, fâil ancak kusurlu ise bundan sorumlu olmaktadır.
Gerek şahsa gerekse mala yönelik haksız fiillerde daha ziyade gerçekleşmiş zararların tazmini cihetine gidilmiştir. Gerçekleşecek zararlardaki belirsizliğin yanı sıra bu tür zararların bir kısmının maddî değil mânevî zarar oluşu ve klasik dönem İslâm hukukçularının mânevî zarara tazmini gereken bir zarar gözüyle bakmamaları bu tür zararların tazmin edilmesini önlemiştir. Şahsa yönelik haksız fiillerde diyet, erş veya hükûmet-i adl olarak vücut bütünlüğüne verilen zararların ve bunların yanında hastahane ve tedavi masraflarının ödenip çekilen acı ve elemin tazmine konu olmaması da yine mânevî zararların tazmin edilmemesi anlayışıyla ilgilidir. Ancak hâkim görüş bu olmakla birlikte çekilen acı ve elemin tazmin edileceğini söyleyen hukukçular da vardır. İmam Muhammed bunlar arasında yer alır.
Mala yönelik haksız fiillerin tazmininde malın mislî veya gayri mislî olması tazminatın şeklini etkilemektedir. Mislî mallarda tazmin o malın misliyle, gayri mislî mallarda ise değeriyle olur. Aslında mislî iken mevcut bulunmaması durumunda da değeriyle ödenmesi cihetine gidilir. Değerin ödenmesinin söz konusu olduğu hallerde hangi zamandaki değerin esas alınacağı meselesi haksız fiilin türüne göre farklılık gösterir. Gayri mislî mallarda eski hale iade esas itibariyle öngörülmemiş olmakla birlikte istisna kabilinden zararın bu yolla tazmin edildiği de olur.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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M. Akif Aydın, “Eski Hukukumuzda Bir Haksız Fiil Türü Olarak İtlâf”, MÜ Hukuk Araştırmaları Dergisi , V, İstanbul 1990, s. 67-85.
“İltizâm”, Mv.F , VI, 144-173.
Hamza Aktan, “Damân”, DİA , VIII, 450-453.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1997 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 15. cildinde, 210-211 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.