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HERAT Skip to content Afganistan’ın batısında tarihî bir şehir ve bu şehrin merkez olduğu eyalet.
Afganistan’ın batısında bulunan Herîrûd ırmağının kenarında çok eski dönemlerde kurulmuştur; adına çivi yazılı Eski Farsça kitâbelerde Haraiva, Avesta ’da ve Grekçe metinlerde Aria, Areia şeklinde rastlanır. Batlamyus ve diğer Grek coğrafyacıları, bereketli Herîrûd vadisinde bulunan şehirler arasında Herat’tan da bahsederler. Büyük İskender’den sonra bu bölge Aria’daki İskenderiye adıyla anılır. Sâsânîler döneminde idarede söz sahibi olan dihkan ve merzübânların yönettiği Herat, sınırda yer almasından dolayı bazan el değiştiren önemli bir askerî merkezdi. İslâm fetihlerinden biraz önce Orta Asya’dan gelen Eftalitler’in (Akhunlar) hâkimiyeti altındaydı.
Hz. Osman’ın Basra valisi Abdullah b. Âmir’in gönderdiği Ahnef b. Kays idaresindeki ordu Horasan’ı 31 (652) yılında fethedince Herat da sulh yoluyla müslümanların eline geçti; ancak Emevîler’in ilk zamanlarında meydana gelen iç savaşlar sırasında elden çıktı ve 41’de (661) yeniden fethedildi. Rebî‘ b. Ziyâd Araplar’dan bir kısmını buraya yerleştirdi (51/671). Muâviye’nin ölümünden sonra Horasan’ı ele geçiren Abdullah b. Hâzim Abdullah b. Zübeyr’e biat etti. Bir ara Herat valiliğine tayin ettiği oğlu Muhammed bu şehirde öldürüldü. Şehir, Horasan bölgesiyle beraber Abdülmelik b. Mervân zamanında Abdullah b. Hâzim’den geri alındı (73/692). Daha sonra isyan eden İbnü’l-Eş‘as’a bağlı kuvvetler Herat’ı işgal ettilerse de 83 (702) yılında Haccâc’ın gönderdiği Yezîd b. Mühelleb karşısında mağlûp oldular.
Herat, Abbâsî Devleti’nin kurulmasıyla sonuçlanan karışıklıklar sırasında Arap kabileleri arasında meydana gelen çatışmalara sahne oldu. Peygamberlik iddiasında bulunduğu rivayet edilen Üstadsîs’in isyanına Heratlılar da katıldı ve isyan güçlükle bastırıldı (150/767). Şehrin ilk Herat asıllı kadısı Mâlik b. Süleyman el-Hanefî (ö. 160/777) Herat ve civarında önemli dinî hizmetlerde bulundu. Herat 204’te (819-20), Abbâsîler’in Horasan valisi Gassân b. Abbâd tarafından Sâmânîler’den Ebü’l-Fazl İlyâs b. Esed’in, onun ölümünden sonra da oğlu Muhammed’in idaresine verildi. Tâhirîler ve Saffârîler’in hâkimiyetinin ardından 297’de (909) Ebû Nâsır Ahmed b. İsmâil’in eliyle Sâmânîler’in hâkimiyetine geçen şehirde daha sonra da Sâmânîler’in Horasan’a vali olarak gönderdikleri Gazneli Sebük Tegin’le beraber Türkler’in hâkimiyet devri başladı (384/994).
Sultan Mahmûd-ı Gaznevî zamanında Sâmânîler’den İsmâil b. Nûh Herat’ı geri almak istediyse de başaramadı (391/1001). Sultan Mahmud 408’de (1017-18) oğlu Mesud’u Herat’a vali tayin etti ve Vezir Ebû Sehl Muhammed b. Hüseyin ez-Zevzenî ile birlikte oraya gönderdi. 422’de (1031) şehri işgal eden Selçuklular daha sonra Ferâvâ’da ağır kayıplar vererek geri çekildiler; 428’de (1037) başlattıkları kuşatmayı da özellikle iç kalenin ve müstahkem varoşlarda oturan ahalinin mukavemeti karşısında kaldırmak zorunda kaldılar. Ancak ertesi yıl Nîşâbur’la birlikte Herat da Selçuklu kuvvetlerine teslim oldu; fakat kısa süre sonra bir halk ayaklanması ile kurtulmayı başardı. Mesud şehre gelerek daha önce kendilerine ihanet edenleri cezalandırdı. Herat Dandanakan Savaşı’ndan (431/1040) sonra Sîstan ile birlikte Selçuklu ailesinden Mûsâ Yabgu’ya verildi. Mevdûd zamanında (1041-1049) tekrar Gazneli hâkimiyetine girdi. Selçuklular şehri ele geçirmek için her yıl yeni bir saldırı düzenledilerse de ancak Sultan Alparslan zamanında almayı başardılar (Muînüddîn-i İsfizârî, I, 388-389). Herat Sencer’in ölümünden (552/1157) sonra Oğuzlar’ın hâkimiyetine girdi. Oğuzlar şehirde kendi emîrleri adına hutbe okuttular. Emîr Aytegin’in ölümü üzerine ise Herat halk tarafından Sencer’in eski kumandanlarından Müeyyed Ay-aba’ya teslim edildi (559/1164).
Herat 571’de (1175-76) Gurlular’ın, 605’te (1208-1209) on üç aylık bir kuşatmadan sonra Hârizmşahlar’ın, 618’de de (1221) Cengiz Han’ın oğlu Tuluy’un eline geçti. Şehrin ahalisi, ertesi yıl Celâleddin Hârizmşah’ın Moğollar’a karşı kazandığı geçici zafere güvenerek ayaklanınca büyük bir kısmı kılıçtan geçirildi; sağ kalanlar da Doğu Türkistan’a ve Çin’e tehcir edilerek şehir harabeye çevrildi. Herat Ögedey Han zamanında (1229-1241) yeniden canlanmaya başladı.
Moğollar’ın 642’de (1244) Gur asıllı Şemseddin Kert’i Herat hâkimi olarak tayin etmeleri ve bu durumun 653’te (1255) Hülâgû tarafından da onaylanması üzerine şehirde Kert hânedanı kurulmuş oldu. Bu dönemin (1255-1381) Herat’ın kültür tarihinde önemli bir yeri vardır. Timur, Horasan’da süregelen Serbedârîler, Kertler ve Muzafferîler arasındaki mücadelelere son vermek üzere oğlu Mîrân Şah’ı gönderdi; kendisi de Herat’ı ele geçirmek için arkasından yola çıktı. Şehri bir süre kuşattıktan sonra Kert Meliki Gıyâseddin Pîr Ali’den teslim aldı (Muharrem 783 / Nisan 1381). Timur’un ayrılmasından sonra başlayan isyan Mîrân Şah tarafından kanlı bir şekilde bastırılarak Kert hânedanına son verildi. 783’ten (1381) 913 (1507) yılına kadar devam eden Timurlular döneminde Herat büyük imar ve sanat faaliyetlerine sahne olmuştur.
Herat 913’te (1507) Özbekler, 916’da (1510) Safevî Hükümdarı Şah İsmâil tarafından zaptedildi ve bölgeye Şamlu Türkmenleri hâkim oldu. Şah İsmâil’in ölümünden sonra Özbekler’le Safevîler arasında birçok defa el değiştiren, hatta 932 (1526) yılında bir ara Bâbürlüler’in eline geçen, XVIII. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinde de Abdâlîler’in yönetiminde kalan Herat, Nâdir Şah’ın ölümünden sonra bağımsızlığını ilân eden Ahmed Şah Dürrânî (1747-1772) tarafından Afganistan topraklarına katıldı. XIX. yüzyılın başlarından itibaren iç çekişmeler ve Ruslar’la İngilizler’in sömürgeci siyasetleri sebebiyle Afganistan’da ortaya çıkan karışıklıklardan faydalanan Kaçarlar 1833 ve 1837’de Herat’ı muhasara ettilerse de başarılı olamadılar. Fakat bu kuşatmalar sırasında şehrin Timurlular döneminden kalma mahalleleri tahrip edildi ve nüfusu da 70.000’den 6-7000’e kadar düştü. İranlılar’ın devamlı surette üzerinde hak iddia ettikleri şehrin 1863 Paris Barış Konferansı’nda kabul edilen bir kararla Afganistan’a ait olduğu açıklandı. 1885’te bu karar İngiliz-Rus sınır komisyonu tarafından tekrar ele alınarak pekiştirildi.
XI. yüzyılda Akdeniz’den Hindistan ve Çin’e giden ana yol üzerinde büyük bir ticaret merkezi olan Herat, özellikle Abbâsîler zamanından itibaren dokumacılıkta isim yapmaya başlamıştı. İstahrî ve İbn Havkal’e göre burası da dönemin diğer büyük şehirleri gibi iç kale, şehir ve dış mahallelerden oluşmaktaydı. Surların kuzey, güney, doğu ve batıya doğru açılan dört ana kapısı vardı. Halkın asıl unsurunu Arap ve Acem müslümanlar teşkil ediyor, bunların yanında kendi özel mâbedlerine sahip olan Mecûsî ve hıristiyanlar da bulunuyordu. Şehrin çevresinde tarım, eskiden beri mevcut olduğu bilinen kanallardan sağlanan su ile yapılıyordu. Yöre meyve bahçeleriyle meşhurdu. Kertler döneminde, Merv ve Belh’in Moğollar tarafından tahrip edilmesinden sonra Batı Asya’dan Doğu Türkistan’a ve Hindistan’dan güneydoğuya giden ticaret yolları Herat’a yöneldiği için şehrin değeri arttı. Kert meliklerinden Fahreddin ve Gıyâseddin burada birçok cami ve medrese yaptırdılar. İbn Battûta’nın şehri ziyareti Kal‘a-i İhtiyârüddin adlı iç kalenin yenilendiği, sanatın ve edebiyatın geliştiği bu döneme rastlar.
Herat kültür ve sanat açısından en önemli dönemini Timurlu yönetiminde yaşamış ve bu dönemde ortaya çıkan Herat ekolü Osmanlılar’dan Bâbürlüler’e kadar bütün İslâm sanat merkezlerinde etkisini hissettirmiştir. Bu yıllarda şehir, başta Şâhruh’un hanımı Gevher Şad tarafından yaptırılan külliye olmak üzere birçok bağ, bahçe, saray, cami ve medrese ile süslendi. 1410’da tamamlanan Bâğ-ı Sefîd adlı sarayın duvarları Çin’den getirilen yeşim taşları ile kaplanmış ve bu taşların üzerine nakış ve resimler yapılmıştı. Hüseyin Baykara döneminde (1469-1506) edebiyat ve sanata, özellikle Türk diline önem verildi; Uygurca ve Çağatayca eserler kaleme alındı. Hüseyin Baykara, çeşitli ağaç ve çiçeklerle süslü bir bahçesi olan Cihânârâ sarayı ile kendi adını taşıyan bir cami ve medrese inşa ettirdi. Şifâiye adı verilen tıp okulu ve hastahane de onun döneminde hizmete girdi. Sanatçıları koruyan ve destekleyen Baykara’nın veziri Ali Şîr Nevâî’nin, İncil kanalı üzerinde yer alan Bâğ-ı Şâh adlı sarayı ile külliyesi meşhurdu. XV. yüzyılın sonuna doğru mimari eser ve medreselerle süslenen şehir nüfus bakımından büyük bir gelişme göstermiştir. Türk müziğinde Herat ekolü bu dönemde ortaya çıktı ve en parlak devrini yaşadı. 1381-1510 yılları arasında etkili olan, Abdülkādir-i Merâgī ve Gulâm Şâdî’nin temsil ettiği kabul edilen bu ekolün form, makam ve usul anlayışı ile Osmanlı müziğini büyük ölçüde tesirinde bıraktığı iddia edilir. Herat ayrıca halıcılık, ciltçilik, hat sanatı, tezhip, bakır işlemeciliği, ipek mensucat, seccade dokumacılığı ve minyatür sanatının geliştiği bir yer olarak şöhret buldu. Sultan Şâhruh’un oğlu Baysungur, burada çeşitli sanat dallarında yüzü aşkın sanatkârın çalıştığı büyük bir atölye kurdu. Böylece Herat, sarayın destek ve himayesiyle kültür ve sanat faaliyetlerine merkez olmuş, tezhip, cilt, minyatür ve hat sanatlarında yine Herat ekolü diye adlandırılan yeni bir üslûp doğmuştur. En olgun ve verimli çağını Sultan Hüseyin Baykara zamanında idrak eden bu ekolden nesta‘lik hattının en büyük üstadı olarak bilinen Sultan Ali Meşhedî ile Mîr Ali Herevî, Ca‘fer-i Tebrîzî ve Sultan Muhammed Nûr gibi hattatlar; en ünlüleri Bihzâd, Âgā Mîrek, Kāsım Ali, Mevlânâ Ali, Emîr Halîl, Hâce Gıyâseddin olan musavvir-nakkaşlar ve Mevlânâ Kıvâmüddin gibi cilt ustaları yetişmiştir.
Timurlular zamanına ait birçok yapı 1885’te, muhtemel bir Rus saldırısına karşı şehrin savunmasını güçleştireceği gerekçesiyle Emîr Abdurrahman tarafından yıktırılmıştır. Geriye kalanlardan Gevher Şad Musallâ ve Medresesi, Hüseyin Baykara Cami ve Medresesi’nin minareleri, Pul-i Mâlân Köprüsü, Gazurgâh’ta Pîr-i Herat Türbesi, Tuman Ağa Medresesi, Taht-ı Sefer Bahçesi ve bazı hankahlarla Gurlular’ın Herat Cuma Camii ve Kertler’in Kal‘a-i İhtiyârüddin’i günümüze ulaşan tarihî yapıların başlıcalarıdır.
Herat ve çevresinde yaşayan ve çoğunluğu Türkçe konuşan Türkmenler, Türkçe ile karışık Farsça konuşan Çehârlar ve Peştuca konuşan Peştunlar Sünnî’dirler. Şehirde çok az sayıda Şiî vardır. Nakşibendiyye tarikatının yaygın olduğu bölgede Çiştiyye ve Kādiriyye mensuplarına da rastlanır.
Şehirde hafif sanayi, halıcılık, el sanatları ve yün, ipek dokumacılığı ileri bir seviyededir. 1979-1989 yılları arasında Rusya’nın işgali altında kalan Afganistan’da halkın büyük çoğunluğu bu süre zarfında istilâcılarla çarpıştığı, Ruslar’ın geri çekilmesinden sonra da halen devam eden bir iç savaş başladığı için şehrin son yıllardaki durumu hakkında sağlıklı bilgi bulunmamaktadır. 1987’de Herat Üniversitesi’nin kurulduğu şehir, 1988 yılı tahminlerine göre 177.000 civarında bir nüfusa sahipti.
Heratlılar Herevî nisbesiyle anılır. Bu nisbeyle tanınan bazı meşhur simalar şunlardır: Ebû Ali Hüseyin b. İdrîs, Seyfî-i Herevî, Ali b. Ebû Bekir, Ahmed b. Muhammed, Ebû Zer, Abdullah-ı Herevî, Muhammed b. Atâullah ve Mîr Ali. Ayrıca Ubeydullah Ahrâr, Avfî, Yûsuf el-Hemedânî, Abdürrezzâk es-Semerkandî, Mîrhând ve Muînüddîn-i İsfizârî gibi şahsiyetler de burada yetişmiştir. Çağatay edebiyatının en büyük şairi Ali Şîr Nevâî’nin “Hilâliyye” kasidesini Sultan Hüseyin Baykara’ya Herat’ta takdim ettiği bilinmektedir (Herat bölgesi hakkında yazılmış tarihlerin ve burayı ziyaret eden Batılı seyyahların listesi için bk. İA , V/1, s. 442).
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1998 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 17. cildinde, 215-218 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.