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HİPOKRAT Skip to content (m.ö. 460 [?]-375 [?])
Tıbbın babası sayılan İlkçağ’ın en ünlü hekimi.
Ölümünden çok sonra kaleme alınan biyografilerinde birçok menkıbe ve efsaneye yer verildiği için hayatı ve gerçek şahsiyeti hakkında pek az güvenilir bilgi mevcuttur. Ceddinin şifa tanrısı Asklepios olduğu kabul edilen ve Asklepiades (Asklepios’un çocukları yahut şifa vericiler) denilen efsanevî bir sülâleye veya tabipler nesline mensup olup muhtemelen milâttan önce 460 yılında Kos (İstanköy) adasında doğmuştur. İlk tıp öğrenimini, buradaki Asklepion’un (Asklepios Mâbedi-şifâhâne) rahip-hekimlerinden olan babası Heraklides’ten (Arap kaynaklarında Iraklîs veya Iraklîdis) almış, atomcu filozof Demokritos ve sofist filozof Gorgias’tan ders görmüştür. Daha sonra Yunanistan ve Marmara denizinin kuzey bölgelerini dolaşmış, Atina’da bulunmuş ve memleketi Kos’ta tıp okutmuştur. Kuzey Yunanistan’daki Larissa şehrinde milâttan önce 380-375 arasındaki bir tarihte ölmüş ve buraya gömülmüştür.
İslâm kaynaklarında adı Bukrat (Bokrat), Bukrâtîs, Ebukrât, İbukrât, İbukrâtîs gibi şekillerde geçen Hipokrat (Hippokrates) hakkında müslümanlar köklü bir imaja sahiptir. Bu imajın en belirgin yanı onu ilki Asklepios, sonuncusu Câlînûs (Galen) olan sekiz tıp üstadı (Asklepiades) arasına dahil etmeleridir. İskenderiye tıp geleneğini sürdüren müslümanlar, orada şekillenen kutsal tıp tarihi anlayışına belli ölçüde bağlı kalmışlar ve Hipokrat’ın şahsiyetini bu anlayış içinde tasavvur etmişlerdir. İslâm kaynaklarında yer alan çeşitli rivayetlere göre Hipokrat tıp tahsilini babasından, kendisiyle aynı adı taşıyan dedesinden veya II. Asklepios’tan (Esklîbîvus es-Sânî) almıştır. Bu kaynaklarda, Hipokrat’ın doğduğu Kû (Kos) adasının Rodos ve Knidos ile birlikte Asklepioncu tıp geleneğinin en önemli merkezlerinden biri olduğu kaydedilerek onun Abderalı Demokritos ile çağdaşlığı vurgulanmakta ve doksan veya doksan beş gibi ileri bir yaşta öldüğü belirtilmektedir. Yine bu kaynaklara göre biri kız üç çocuğu bulunmakta ve torunlarından ikisi kendi adını taşımaktadır. Dolayısıyla İslâm kaynakları, biri asıl Hipokrat olmak üzere dede, baba ve iki torundan meydana gelen dört Hipokrat’tan (Bukrâtûn, Bukârıta) bahseder. Ancak asıl Hipokrat’ın babasının Iraklîdis mi yoksa II. Asklepios mu olduğu konusunda farklı rivayetler nakledilmiştir. İslâm kaynaklarında ortaklaşa kaydedilen bir rivayete göre Hipokrat İran Kisrâsı I. Erdeşîr (Pers İmparatoru I. Artaxerexes, m.ö. 465-424) tarafından bir veba salgını münasebetiyle İran’a davet edilmiş, fakat önerilen yüksek ücrete rağmen, o dönemde İyonya dahil bütün Anadolu’yu hâkimiyetleri altında tutan Persler’e hizmet etmeyi onuruna yediremediği için, önce ülkesinin düşmanlarına değil kendi yurttaşlarına bakmakla mükellef olduğunu söyleyerek teklifi geri çevirmiştir. Onun Fîrûhâ (Halep), Humus ve Dımaşk’ta bulunduğu yolundaki bir rivayet ise (İbnü’n-Nedîm, s. 346-347; Mes‘ûdî, s. 131-132; İbnü’l-Kıftî, s. 64-66; İbn Ebû Usaybia, s. 43-44, 47-48) doğrulanmamıştır.
Modern tıbbın babası sayılan Hipokrat, o güne kadar uygulanan geleneksel dinî-sihrî tedavi metotlarına karşı hem akla hem tecrübeye yer veren bir tıp anlayışı ortaya koymuştur. Yirmi beşi ölümle sonuçlandığı halde kırk iki klinik olaya ait gözlemlerini samimiyetle aktarmış ve tıpta tecrübenin önemini vurgulamıştır. Onun akılcı yaklaşımı ise sebebi doğrudan doğruya tabiat üstü güçlere bağlanan hastalık kavramını reddedişinde kendini göstermektedir. Nitekim İslâm dünyasında Kitâb fi’l-marażi’l-ilâhî adıyla bilinen (Sezgin, III, 43) epilepsi (sara) hakkındaki eserinde, halk arasında kutsal hastalık denilen bu rahatsızlığın bir beyin hastalığı olduğunu ve fizyolojik sebeplere dayandığını ortaya koymuştur (Sarton, I, 98). Hipokrat’a göre öteki hastalıklar ne kadar kutsal ise epilepsi de o kadar kutsaldır ve tıp ilminin araştırması gereken şey onun tabii sebebidir. Özellikle hastalıkların doğrudan doğruya tanrıların ve cinlerin eseri olarak tanımlandığı Yunan halk hekimliği için bu görüş çok önemli bir adım teşkil eder. Hipokrat’ın tıptaki pozitif yönü din aleyhtarı olduğu anlamına gelmez. Nitekim ona göre tıp ilâhî bir sanattı; bu sanatı icra eden hekim hem tanrıların yardımını görmekte hem de tabiatın iyileştirici gücünden faydalanmaktaydı. Esasen Hipokrat tıbbının bağlandığı kutsal Asklepion geleneği ona daima dinî bir hüviyet vermiştir. Sağlık tanrısı Asklepios adına Akdeniz havzası boyunca inşa edilen mâbedler aynı zamanda tıp öğretim ve uygulama merkezleri olmuştu. Kos adasındaki Asklepion’da yetişen Hipokrat’ın bütün aklî ve tecrübî eğilimlerine rağmen şifanın ilâhî kaynağını vurgulayan dinî yaklaşımlarla bütünleşmesi kaçınılmazdı. Nitekim milâttan sonra yaşayan aynı geleneğe mensup Câlînûs dahi kendisini Asklepios’un hizmetkârı olarak tanımlamakta ve tıbbın tanrı vergisi olduğunu söylemektedir. Söz konusu dinî çerçevenin Hipokrat tıbbına, çok yaygın ve hatta prensipleri günümüze kadar geçerliliğini koruyan bir hekimlik ahlâkı (tıbbî deontoloji) kazandırdığı da belirtilmelidir. Bu ahlâkın en dikkat çekici ilkeleri, müslümanlarca da “el-Ahd” veya “el-Eymân” adıyla bilinen (İbn Ebû Usaybia, s. 44) “Hipokrat yemini”nde ortaya konulmuştur. XV. yüzyıldan itibaren Fransa’da başlanan bir uygulama ile bugün bütün dünya tıp fakültelerinin diploma törenlerinde okunan bu yeminin başlıca prensipleri şunlardır: Hekimin hayatını insanlık hizmetine adaması, kendini yetiştirenlere karşı evlât bağlılığı duyması, bizzat istese bile hiçbir hastayı öldürmemesi, ana karnındaki çocuğa kasten zarar vermemesi, hastanın sırrını kimseye açıklamaması, hayatını ahlâk ve namus kuralları çerçevesinde geçirmesi.
Mısır, Knidos ve Kos tıp okullarındaki tecrübî birikimi sistemleştiren, tümevarıma dayalı bir tıp anlayışı geliştiren ve bu ilmi hurafelerden ayıklamaya çalışan da yine Hipokrat’tır. Tıp teorisini temellendirdiği dört beden sıvısı (bk. AHLÂT-ı ERBAA ) kavramını ortaya atmış ve kendisiyle başlatılan tıp tarihini derin şekilde etkilemiştir. Hipokrat’ın hekimlik yanında tabiat ilimleri, gizli ilimler ve astrolojiyle de ilgilendiği kaydedilmektedir (İbnü’l-Kıftî, s. 64; İbn Ebû Usaybia, s. 47). Fahreddin er-Râzî, astrolojik büyü üzerine kaleme aldığı es-Sırrü’l-mektûm ’da onu faydalandığı kaynakların en başında saymakta (Ullmann, Die Natur , s. 389), hatta Mecrîtî’nin ünlü simya-sihir-büyü kitabı Ġāyetü’l-ḥakîm ’in (Sarton I, 668; Ullmann, Die Natur , s. 385) Kastilya Kralı Alfonso’nun emriyle 1252’de yapılan Latince çevirisine de Picatrix adının Hipokrat’ın Arapça söylenişinden (Bukrâtîs) esinlenerek konulduğu ileri sürülmektedir (a.g.e. , s. 385; EI2 Suppl. [İng.] , s. 155).
Eserleri. Günümüze Hipokrat adına nisbet edilen bir tıp külliyatı (Corpus Hippocraticum ) ulaşmıştır. Hepsi de İyonya lehçesiyle yazılmış olan bu elli dokuz (veya altmış) eserden çoğu otantik değildir. Bu külliyat birçok elden çıkma, değişik tarihlerde yazılmış çok farklı bakış açılarına sahip eserlerden meydana gelmektedir ve hiçbirinin Hipokrat’a aidiyeti kesinlik kazanmamıştır. Muhtemelen bunlar, Kos tıp okulu kütüphanelerinden milâttan önce III. yüzyılda İskenderiye’ye taşınmış ve burada Hipokrat’a nisbet edilmiştir; dolayısıyla Hipokrat’ın eserlerinden değil ancak Hipokratik eserlerden bahsetmek mümkündür (ER , VI, 367). Sarton da külliyatın büyük bir kısmının otantik olmadığını kabul etmekte, ancak çoğunun Hipokrat tıp teorisi denilebilecek anlayışın doğrudan veya dolaylı ürünü olduğunu vurgulamaktadır (Introduction , I, 97).
Hipokratik eserlerin pek çoğu, Câlînûs şerhleriyle birlikte Huneyn b. İshak ve okulunun öncülük ettiği tercüme faaliyetleri sırasında Arapça’ya kazandırılmıştır. İbn Ebû Usaybia onun sahih kitaplarının otuz civarında olduğunu belirterek tıp öğreniminde en gerekli gördüğü on ikisinin adını sıralamakta, ayrıca bir de uydurma kitaplar listesi vermektedir. Hipokratik eserlerin İslâm dünyasındaki yaygınlık derecelerine ışık tutan söz konusu on iki eser şunlardır: Kitâbü’l-Ecinne , Ṭabîʿatü’l-insân , Kitâbü’l-Ehviyye ve’l-miyâh ve’l-büldân , Kitâbü’l-Fuṣûl , Taḳdimetü’l-maʿrife , el-Emrâżü’l-ḥâdde , Evcâʿu’n-nisâʾ , Ebîẕimyâ , Kitâbü’l-Aḫlâṭ , Kitâbü’l-Ġıẕâʾ , Ḳāṭîṭriyûn , Kitâbü’l-Kesr ve’l-cebr .
Fuat Sezgin Hipokrat’ın İslâm dünyasında bilinen eserlerini, bunların Arapça tercümelerini, şerhlerini ve haklarında yapılmış modern araştırmaları ayrıntılarıyla kaydetmiştir (GAS , III, 28-47). Müslümanların şerh yazdığı Hipokratik eserlerin başında Kitâbü’l-Fuṣûl (Aforizmoi ) ve Taḳdimetü’l-maʿrife (Prognostikon ) gelmektedir. Bunlardan Ebü’l-Kāsım İbn Ebü’s-Sâdık, Abdüllatîf el-Bağdâdî, İbnü’n-Nefîs ve İbnü’l-Kuff’un Kitâbü’l-Fuṣûl şerhleriyle Mühezzebüddin ed-Dahvâr ve yine İbnü’n-Nefîs’in Taḳdimetü’l-maʿrife şerhleri en tanınmış olanlardır (ayrıca bk. Agha, s. 5-8, 50-52).
Hipokrat’ın klinik gözlemci yanının İslâm dünyasındaki en önemli temsilcisi Ebû Bekir er-Râzî’dir. Onun el-Ḥâvî ’si Hipokratik külliyata atıflarla doludur. Ayrıca Ya‘kūb b. İshak el-Kindî’nin eṭ-Ṭıbbü’l-Buḳrâṭî ’si ile Ebü’l-Hasan et-Taberî’nin el-Muʿâlecâtü’l-Buḳrâṭiyye ’si bu külliyattan derlenmiş müstakil çalışmalardır (Sezgin, III, 27). Eğer Câbir’in eserlerinin II. (VIII.) yüzyıl gibi erken bir döneme ait olduğu tezi doğru ise (bk. CÂBİR b. HAYYÂN ) onun Kitâbü’s-Sümûm adlı eserinde Hipokrat hakkında yer alan bilgiler, bu külliyatın İslâm dünyasına sanıldığından önce girdiğini gösterir (a.g.e. , III, 24-25).
Hipokrat külliyatının Yunanca tenkitli metni ilk defa Fr. Asalanus tarafından hazırlanmış ve Fabius Calvus tarafından Latince’ye tercüme edilmiştir (Venedik 1526). Daha sonra tekrar tekrar Latince’ye çevrilen külliyatın yegâne eksiksiz edisyon kritiği, Fransızca tercümesiyle birlikte Emile Littré tarafından Les æuvres complètes d’Hippocrate adıyla on cilt halinde yapılmıştır (Paris 1839-1861; tıpkıbasım Amsterdam 1961). Aynı yıllarda eserlerin bir kısmı Francis Adams tarafından The Geniune Works of Hippokrates adı altında İngilizce olarak yayımlanmış (I-II, London 1839), daha sonra da yirmi sekiz risâlenin yine İngilizce çevirisi Grekçe metinleriyle birlikte W. H. S. Jones ve E. T. Withington tarafından Hippocrates adı altında dört cilt halinde yayımlanmıştır (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1923-1931).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
İbnü’n-Nedîm, el-Fihrist (Teceddüd) , s. 346-347.
Mes‘ûdî, et-Tenbîh , Leiden 1967, s. 131-132.
İbnü’l-Kıftî, İḫbârü’l-ʿulemâʾ , s. 64-67.
İbn Ebû Usaybia, ʿUyûnü’l-enbâʾ , s. 43-56, 298, 323, 426, 427, 461, 462, 472, 479.
Sarton, Introduction , I, 96-102, 668.
Sezgin, GAS , III, 23-47.
Ullmann, Die Medizin , s. 25-35.
a.mlf., Die Natur- und Geheimwissenschaften im Islam , Leiden 1972, s. 385, 389, 420.
Z. M. Agha, Bibliography of Islamic Medicine and Pharmacy , London 1983, s. 3-8, 50-52.
Carra de Vaux, “Bokrat”, İA , II, 707.
A. Dietrich, “Buḳrāṭ”, EI2 Suppl. (İng.) , s. 154-156.
“Hippokrates”, Büyük Larousse , IX, İstanbul 1986, s. 5319-5320.
Gary B. Fergren, “Hippocrates”, ER , VI, 367-368.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1998 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 18. cildinde, 119-121 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.