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İDİL BULGAR HANLIĞI Skip to content İslâmiyet’i resmî din olarak kabul eden ilk Türk devleti (X-XV. yüzyıl).
İtil (Volga) nehrinin orta havzasında kurulduğundan, diğer Türk Bulgar devletlerinden ayırt edilebilmesi için nehrin mahallî söylenişi olan İdil kelimesiyle birlikte zikredilen hanlık en uzun ömürlü Türk devletlerinden biridir. Bulgarlar’ın en eski ataları, Ogur (Ugur) adıyla anılan Batı Türk boylarının bağlı olduğu kitlelerdir. Büyük Hun İmparatorluğu zamanında Ural dağlarının doğusunda yaşayan bu kitlelere eski Çinliler Tingling diyorlardı. Bu kelimenin Türkçe “Tiyinli” (sincaplı) mânasına geldiği ileri sürülmektedir. Nitekim bu bölge tarih boyunca sincap, samur, kakım gibi av hayvanları ile meşhur olmuştur. Batı Hun Devleti zamanında (374-469) Ogur Türkleri’nin Beş-Ogur, Altı-Ogur, On-Ogur, Otuz-Ogur, Sar-Ogur (Ak-Ogur) gibi boyları Karadeniz’in kuzeyinde yaşıyordu. Bu boylar tamamen Batı Hun Devleti’ne bağlıydı. Batı Hun Devleti yıkılınca Attilâ’nın küçük oğlu İrne, kendisine bağlı Hun boylarıyla Orta Avrupa’dan Karadeniz’in kuzeyine döndü. Söz konusu boylar bu bölgedeki Ogur boylarıyla karışarak Bulgar adını aldılar. VI. yüzyılın son çeyreğinde Batı Göktürk Devleti’nin hâkimiyeti altına giren Bulgarlar bu devletin yıkılmasından (630) sonra başbuğları Kurt (Kuvrat) idaresinde Büyük Bulgar Devleti’ni kurdular. Bizans ve Ermeni kaynaklarında Magna Bulgaria (Büyük Bulgaristan) veya muhtemelen eski adlarından dolayı Patria Onoguria (On-Ogur yurdu) diye adlandırılan bu devlet uzun ömürlü olamamış, kurucusu Kurt’un 665’te ölümünden sonra Hazar Hakanlığı’nın saldırıları sonucu yıkılmıştır.
Kurt’un oğullarından Bat-Bayan’ın liderlik ettiği bir kısım Bulgarlar, Kafkasya’nın kuzeyinde kalarak Hazar Hakanlığı’na tâbi oldular. Bugün Kafkasya’nın kuzeyinde yaşayan Bolkarlar’ın onların devamı olduğu bilinmektedir. Kurt’un diğer oğlu Asparuh (İsperih, Esperih), kendisine bağlı boylarla birlikte batıya yönelerek Tuna nehri boyuna geldi. Balkanlar’ı ele geçirerek 681 yılında Tuna Bulgar Devleti’ni kurdu. Yaklaşık iki yüzyıl Türk karakterini koruyarak varlığını devam ettiren Tuna Bulgar Devleti, zamanla Slav nüfusunun içinde eriyerek hem Slavlaştı hem de Hıristiyanlığın etkisine girdi. 864’te hükümdarları Boris (Pars) Han’ın Hıristiyanlığı resmen kabul etmesinden sonra tamamen Türk özelliğini yitirdi.
Otuz-Ogurlar’ın (Utigur) dahil olduğu Bulgar grubu kuzeye doğru, yani bugünkü Kazan bölgesine çekilerek İdil Bulgarları’nı oluşturdu. Otuz-Ogurlar, İdil ile Kama nehirleri sahasına geldiklerinde bölgenin yerlisi olan Çirmiş, Ar, Udmurt, Mordva (Mokşı), Votyak, Zıryan ve Ves (Viso) gibi Fin-Ogur kavimlerini itaat altına aldılar. İdil Bulgarları’nın yerleştiği bu bölge, III. yüzyılda Hunlar’dan itibaren çeşitli Türk göçlerine sahne olmuş, V. yüzyılda Batı Sibirya’dan gelen Sabar Türkleri de yine bu bölgeye yerleşmişlerdi. Son zamanlarda yapılan araştırmalarda İdil Bulgarları’na yakın alanlarda Macarlar’ın da bulunduğu tesbit edilmiştir.
Otuz-Ogur Bulgarları’nın yerleştiği Orta İdil iklim ve tabii zenginlikler açısından çok elverişli bir bölgeydi. Kama ırmağının kollarından Şuşma ve Zey havzaları ve kuzey kısmı geniş ormanlarla kaplıydı. Bu ormanlarda derisi ve kürkü çok kıymetli hayvanlar avlanırdı. Nehirlerde balık bol olduğu için su ürünleri ülkeye ayrı bir zenginlik getiriyordu. Arazi düz ve verimliydi. Ayrıca İskandinavya-İran ticaret yolu sayesinde İdil Bulgar Devleti canlı bir ticaret merkezi haline gelmişti. İdil Bulgar ülkesi, Hazar denizine akan İdil nehrinde yapılan deniz taşımacılığı sayesinde Hârizm, Türkistan, Çin, İran ve Kafkasya’ya bağlanmaktaydı. Diğer eski Türk devletlerinden farklı olarak kısa zamanda yerleşik hayata geçen Bulgarlar tarımla uğraşmaya, Biler, Suvar, Cüke-Tav, Saksin, Oşal, Tetiş, Züye, Kazan, Kermencük gibi şehirleri kurarak ticaret yapmaya başladılar.
Son zamanlarda yapılan arkeoloji ve toponimi araştırmaları neticesinde İdil nehrinin kollarının İdil Bulgar Devleti’nin tabii sınırlarını teşkil ettiği anlaşılmıştır. Doğuda Çirmişen, Şuşma ve Zey sularının başlangıç noktaları, kuzeyde Kazan ırmağı ile Vyatka suyu, batıda Sura suyuna kadar Züye suyu, güneyde Çirmişen ile Samar suyuna kadar olan bölge İdil Bulgar Devleti’nin sınırlarını çiziyordu. Ural dağlarının güney kısmında ve Ak-İdil kolunda yaşayan Başkırt (Başkurt) Türkleri İdil Bulgar Devleti’nin doğu, etnik menşeleri bilinmeyen Burtas kavmi batı, Hazar Hakanlığı güney ve Doğu Slavları da kuzey komşularını oluşturmaktaydı. Bölgenin yerli ahalisi Fin-Ogur kavimleri kısa zamanda İdil Bulgar kültürünün etkisine girerek Türkleşti. Hunlar ve Sabarlar zamanında bölgede başlayan Türkleşme süreci VIII. yüzyılın başlarında İdil Bulgarları’nın gelmesiyle tamamlandı.
Eski Türk inançlarını devam ettiren İdil Bulgarları, Hârizm ve İran’dan ticaret yapmak için ülkeye gelen müslüman tüccarların faaliyetleri sonucu müslüman olmaya başladılar. Ülkedeki müslümanların sayısı giderek arttı. Gerek ülkeye gelen tüccarlar ve müslüman olan ahalinin etkisi, gerekse Hazar Hakanlığı’na karşı müttefik aramak arzusu, İdil Bulgar Hanı Şilkey oğlu Yeltever (İlteber) Almış’ı Abbâsî halifesiyle münasebet kurmaya sevketti. Halife Muktedir-Billâh’a elçi gönderen Almış Han, İslâmiyet’i kabul etmek arzusunda olduğunu belirterek ülkesine din adamları gönderilmesini istedi. Bunun üzerine halife, Sevsen (Sûsen) er-Ressî başkanlığındaki bir heyeti Bulgar ülkesine yolladı. Meşhur seyyah İbn Fadlân’ın danışman ve kâtip olarak bulunduğu heyet, 12 Muharrem 310’da (12 Mayıs 922) Bulgar hanının İdil boyundaki karargâhına ulaştı. Almış Han ve devletin ileri gelenleri elçi heyetini çok iyi karşıladılar. Hanın resmen Müslümanlığı kabul etmesiyle Abbâsî hilâfetine tâbi müslüman bir devlet haline gelen İdil Bulgar Devleti bu tarihten sonra İslâm dininin Doğu Avrupa’daki temsilcisi oldu. Abbâsî halifesi ve Bulgar hanı adına sikkeler basıldı camiler ve saraylar inşa edildi, kadılık müessesesi kuruldu.
Bölgeye yerleşmelerinden itibaren Hazar Hakanlığı’nın siyasî üstünlüğünü kabul eden İdil Bulgarları, bu hakanlığın doğudan gelen Peçenek ve Kuman-Kıpçak akınları ve Ruslar’dan yediği ağır bir darbe neticesinde zayıflaması üzerine 965 yılında tam olarak bağımsızlıklarını kazandılar. İdil Bulgar ülkesi 964 ve 985 yılında iki defa Kiev Rus Knezliği’nin istilâsına uğradıysa da bu hücumlar etkisiz hale getirildi. 1006 yılında iki ülke arasında ticaret anlaşması imzalandı.
Hazar Hakanlığı’nın zayıflaması, İdil nehrinin Hazar denizine döküldüğü yerde kurulan ve çok canlı bir ticaret merkezi olan İdil şehrinin önemini azalttı. Buna karşılık ticarî faaliyetlerin yoğunlaştığı Bulgar şehri Arap, İran, Türkmenistan, Hazar, İskandinavya, Rus ülkelerinden ve Baltık denizinden gelen tüccarların alış-veriş yaptığı büyük bir pazar haline geldi. XI. yüzyıldan itibaren kuzeydeki kürk ticareti yüzünden İdil Bulgarları ile Ruslar arasında uzun süreli mücadeleler oldu. 1183 ve 1205’te Rus Prensi Vsevolod, İdil Bulgar topraklarına ordular gönderdi. Onun oğlu Yuri de 1221’de Nijni Novgorod (Gorki) Kalesi’ni inşa ettirdi.
1223 yılında Rus ve Kuman-Kıpçak ordularını Kalka Savaşı’nda bozguna uğratan Moğol ordusu İdil Bulgarları tarafından imha edildi. Batu Han bu yenilginin intikamını almak için 1236’da İdil Bulgarları’nın üzerine sefere çıkarak ülkeyi baştan başa yakıp yıktı. Bulgar şehri de aynı âkıbete uğradı ve ahalisinin çoğu öldürüldü. 1238-1239 yıllarında bir defa daha Moğollar’dan darbe yiyen Kuman-Kıpçaklar’ın bir kısmı İdil Bulgarları’nın ülkesine geldi. Aralarında kaynaşma neticesinde sayıca çok olan Kuman-Kıpçak Türkleri’nin dil unsurları üstün geldi.
İdil Bulgarları, Moğol istilâsından sonra kurulan Altın Orda Devleti zamanında yarı bağımlı da olsa siyasî varlıklarını devam ettirdiler. İdil Bulgar hanlarının yeniden kuvvetlenme arzusu Altın Orda Hanı Pulat Timur’un 1361’deki saldırısıyla son buldu. Ülke yeniden tahrip edildi. Bu hadiseden sonra bir kısım İdil Bulgarı kuzeye çekilerek Kazan şehrini kurdu. 1391 yılında Timur’un Toktamış’ı mağlûp ettiği savaşta İdil Bulgar ülkesi yeniden tahribe uğradı. Halkın büyük bir kısmı Kazan nehri boyuna daha önce gidenlerin yanına göç etti. Kazan civarında toplanan Kuman-Kıpçak-Bulgar karışımı Türkler Kazan Hanlığı’nın ahalisini oluşturdu. Altın Orda hanlarından Uluğ Muhammed 1437’de Kazan Hanlığı’nı kurunca İdil Bulgar Hanlığı halkıyla birlikte tarihe karışmış oldu. Bu hanlığın beş buçuk asır kadar devam etmesinin en önemli sebebi, yerleştikleri bölgenin Orta Asya’dan Orta Avrupa istikametine doğru yapılan bütün Türk akınlarından uzak kalmasıdır.
Ziraat, ticaret, avcılık, hayvancılık, arıcılık ve zanaatkârlık İdil Bulgar Devleti’nin iktisadî hayatının temel unsurlarıydı. Kürk, deri, ok, kılıç, zırh, kereste, ceviz, mum, bal, arpa, buğday, çavdar, koyun, sığır başlıca ihraç maddelerini oluşturmaktaydı. Buna karşılık kumaş, seramik gibi maddeleri İslâm ülkelerinden ithal etmekteydiler. Özellikle dericilik zanaatı çok gelişmişti, “Bulgar gönü” adı verilen işlenmiş deri çok meşhurdu. İdil Bulgarları’nın evleri ağaçtandı. Kalın ağaç tomrukları üst üste konarak duvarlar çıkılır, damlar kereste ya da samanla örtülürdü. Şehirlerin ve köylerin çoğu orman ya da nehir kenarında kurulmuştu. İslâmiyet’in kabulünden sonra taştan cami ve saray benzeri bina yapımına başlanmıştır. İdil Bulgar Hanlığı’ndan Bulgar şehrindeki cami, saray ve hamam yıkıntıları, mezar taşları ve kitâbelerle bazı ziynet eşyası, ok, kılıç, miğfer, zırh gibi silâhlar günümüze ulaşmıştır.
İdil Bulgarları sulama kanallarını kireçten imal etmişler, suyun tarlalara dağıtımını ise ağaç oluklarla sağlamışlardır. Bu usul daha sonra Ruslar tarafından kendi ülkelerinde uygulanmıştır. Bulgar şehrinde 1953 yılında yapılan kazılarda XIII ve XIV. yüzyıllara ait çok sayıda demir filizi eritme ocağına rastlanmıştır.
Sikkelerden ve İslâm tarihi kaynaklarından adları tesbit edilebilen müslüman İdil Bulgar hanları şunlardır: Şülkî, Almış, Ahmed, Tâlib, Mü’min, Haydar, Muhammed, Saîd b. Haydar, Baraj, İbrâhim, Selim, İlham, Abdullah, Hasan, Mahmud, Abdullah, Altınbek, Âlimbek.
XII. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Ya‘kūb b. Nu‘mân adlı Bulgar kadısının Bulgar Târihi adlı bir eser yazdığı rivayet edilir. İbn Fadlân’ın Seyahatname ’si, İdil Bulgar Devleti’yle ilgili en eski yazılı bilgileri ihtiva etmektedir. İdil Bulgarları’nın bugünkü Çuvaşlar’ın ataları olduğu kabul edilmektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2000 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 21. cildinde, 472-474 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır. Bu madde en son 05.04.2020 tarihinde güncellenmiştir.