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İHTİYAR Skip to content Rızâ ile birlikte iradenin iki farklı yönünü yansıtan ve hukukî işlemin sebebine yönelik irade şeklinde özel bir anlam yüklenen fıkıh terimi.
Sözlükte “iki şeyden birini diğerine tercih etmek, seçip ayırmak, üstün tutmak” gibi anlamlara gelen ihtiyâr kelimesinin gerek Kur’an’daki (el-A‘râf 7/155; Tâhâ 20/13; el-Kasas 28/68; ed-Duhân 44/32) gerekse dinî literatürdeki kullanımı bu sözlük anlamı çerçevesindedir. Bununla birlikte kelimenin kelâm ve fıkıhta terim anlamı kazandığı, özellikle rızâ-ihtiyar ayırımı yapan ve bunları iradenin iki farklı aşaması ve yönü olarak kabul eden Hanefî mezhebinde ihtiyarın daha dar ve teknik anlamda kullanıldığı söylenebilir.
Başta kelâm, felsefe ve ahlâk gibi ilim dalları olmak üzere İslâm kültüründe irade kişinin bir fiile yönelmesini ve harekete geçme gücünü, ihtiyar ise birkaç şey arasından birini bilinçli olarak ve gönül rızâsıyla seçmesini ifade eder (bk. İRADE ). Bunun için ihtiyarın, zaman zaman bilhassa Allah’a nisbet edildiği yerlerde kelâmcılar tarafından irade anlamında kullanıldığı görülse de genelde ihtiyar irade ve meşîetten daha dar ve özel bir anlama sahiptir (Tehânevî, I, 553; Ebü’l-Bekā, s. 74). İhtiyar teriminin kelâmcılar ve felsefeciler arasındaki yaygın kullanımı, “fâilin dilerse yapacak dilerse yapmayacak durumda olması” anlamındadır. Yapmama halinde ona ilişkin meşîet de bulunmayacağı için fiil vücuda gelmez. İhtiyarın özellikle Mâtürîdî kelâmcıları tarafından benimsenen, fakat felsefecilerce kabul görmeyen ikinci anlamı ise kudrete bağlı olarak bir fiili yapmanın da terketmenin de sahih oluşudur (Tehânevî, I, 419). Fârâbî ihtiyarı, “nefsin arzu ve hayal gücünden doğan iradeden sonraki üçüncü aşama olarak düşünceden doğan ve mümkün olan şeylere yönelen irade türü” şeklinde tanıtır ve bunun canlılar arasında insana mahsus bir özellik olduğunu belirtir (es-Siyâsetü’l-medeniyye , s. 72). Gazzâlî de benzeri bir yaklaşımla ve ayrıca kelimenin kök anlamı olan hayr ile ilgi kurarak ihtiyarı “iradenin aklın hayırlı gördüğünü işleme yönünde harekete geçmesi” biçiminde tanımlar ve onu iradenin özel bir türü olarak görür (İḥyâʾ , IV, 316). Kelâm literatüründe ihtiyar cebrin karşıtı olarak kullanıldığında bununla kişinin zihnî ve amelî bütün fiillerini kendi seçimiyle yapma gücü kastedilir.
Kelâm ve felsefedeki irade-ihtiyar ayırımının ya da meşîet, rızâ, kasıt, niyet, talep, irade ve ihtiyar gibi dinî öğretiyi tanıma ve tanıtma açısından önemli kelimeler etrafında geliştirilen kavram tartışmalarının dil ve fıkıh usulü literatüründe de benzeri şekilde tartışıldığı görülür. Dilcilerden Ebû Hilâl el-Askerî’nin irade ve ihtiyar kavramlarının anlamlarına dair tesbit ve değerlendirmesi oldukça aydınlatıcı mahiyettedir. Buna göre hayr kökünden türemiş olan ihtiyar kelimesi, sözlük anlamı bakımından “bir şeyi başka bir şeye bedel olarak irade etmek, iki şey arasında tercihte bulunmak” mânasına geldiğinden genellikle “dilemek, karar verip yönelmek” anlamındaki iradeden farklıdır. İhtiyarı kullanan kimseyi ifade eden muhtâr kelimesi, iki şeyi inceleyip aralarında bir karşılaştırma yapan ve iki şeyin “gerçekte” veya “kendince” hayırlısını bir zorlama olmaksızın seçip irade eden kişiyi anlatır. Bu sebeple ihtiyar, zorlamayı ifade eden ıztırâr ve ilcâ terimlerinin karşıtı olup muhtarın mukabili -mükreh değil- muztar veya mülce dir. Bir şeyi irade etmek zorunda kalan kişiye de muhtar değil mürîd denir. Rızâ ise “gönül hoşnutluğu, memnuniyet, beğenme” anlamına gelir ve bu anlamıyla özü bakımından irade kapsamına girmez. Böyle olunca iradenin “salt karar verme”, ihtiyarın “fiil veya terk arasında seçim yapma”, rızânın da “yapma rağbeti ve sevinç” olarak tarif edilmesi mümkün olup sonuçta bu üç kavram arasında şu şekilde bir ilişki kurulmuş olmaktadır: Bir şeyin irade edilmesi ihtiyar veya icbar, bir şeyin ihtiyar edilmesi de rızâ veya kerahet kaynaklı olabileceğinden irade eden kişinin (mürîd) muhtar veya mücber (muztar), bir seçimde bulunan kişinin de (muhtar) râzı ve kârih (memnuniyetsiz) olması mümkündür (el-Furûḳ fi’l-luġa , s. 116-119). Bu noktada ikrah ile ıztırar, cebr (icbar) ve ilcâ kavramları arasındaki anlam yakınlığı ve farklılığı da ortaya çıkmaktadır. Sözlük anlamları itibariyle ilcânın ıztırarla ve ikrahın da icbarla aynı mânada olduğu söylense de terminolojide aralarında ince farklar bulunduğu belirtilir (a.g.e. , s. 125-126).
İkraha mâruz kalan kişi zorla bir işi yapmaya sevkedilmekle birlikte yine de ihtiyardan tamamen yoksun değildir. Fakat ıztırar durumunda kişinin hiçbir seçme imkânı yoktur ve sadece bir tek şeyi yapmak durumundadır. Bu noktada fakihler arasında önemli bir görüş ayrılığı bulunmamaktadır. Hanefîler’le cumhur arasındaki görüş ayrılığı, daha çok ikraha mâruz kalan kişinin sahip olduğu ihtiyarın hükme mesnet teşkil edip edemeyeceği noktasındadır (bk. İKRAH ).
İhtiyar kavramının rızâ kavramıyla ilişkisi konusunda özellikle Hanefî usulcüleriyle diğerleri arasında derin görüş ayrılıkları mevcuttur. Kelâm, felsefe ve dil literatüründe irade, ihtiyar ve rızâ kavramları arasında kurulan ilişki ve yapılan ayırımlar Hanefî usulcülerinin görüşleri için de esas teşkil etmiştir. Hanefîler, rızâ ve ihtiyarın farklı anlam ve sonuçları bulunan iki ayrı kavram olduğunu öne sürerken cumhur, rızâ-ihtiyar ayırımı yapmayıp bunların aynı anlama delâlet ettiklerini savunmuş, ikrahı hür seçim iradesine (rızâ/ihtiyar) ve kasta aykırı bir durum olarak değerlendirmiştir. Bundan dolayı fakihlerin çoğunluğu, muhtar tabirini çok defa mükrehin karşıt anlamlısı olarak kullanmasının yanı sıra (İbn Kudâme, VII, 262; XIII, 436) ayrıca kasıt yokluğunu bir bütün olarak değerlendirdiği için uyuyan ve baygın mukabilinde de kullanmıştır (a.g.e. , XIII, 186). İkrah, hata, sarhoşluk, hezl, sehiv gibi ehliyet ârızalarının hukukî işlemlere ve ibadetlere etkisi, büyük ölçüde bu ihtiyar ve rızâ arasındaki ayırım ekseninde incelenip temellendirilmiştir.
Hanefîler’e göre ihtiyar, “fâilin gücü dahilinde olup varlık ve yokluk ihtimali olan bir şeye bu iki ihtimalden birini tercih ederek yönelmek, onu kastetmek” anlamındadır (Abdülazîz el-Buhârî, IV, 1503; Ali Haydar, III, 16). İki ihtimalden birinin tercih edilmesi, istek ve arzu kaynaklı olabileceği gibi iki zarardan hafif olanına katlanma düşüncesinden de kaynaklanabilir. Bu bakımdan Hanefîler, ihtiyar ve rızâ arasında fark gözeterek rızâyı eksiksiz biçimde gerçekleşmesi ve ihtiyarın doruk noktaya ulaşması şeklinde tanımlamışlardır. Buna göre ihtiyar, sonuçlarından sarfı nazar edilerek diğerine göre üstün tutulan bir şeyin kasıt ve irade edilmesi, rızâ ise bu tercihin sonuçlarının güzel bulunup gerçekleşmesinin arzulanması olmaktadır. Bu açıdan bakıldığında ihtiyarın sebebe, rızânın ise sonuca ilişkin olduğu, diğer bir ifadeyle ihtiyarın akdi inşa eden ibareyi söylemenin kastedilmesi, rızânın ise bu beyanın sonuçlarının arzulanması olduğu söylenebilir (M. Mustafa Şelebî, s. 452). Akdin inşâsına yönelik iradenin sonucu da arzulanarak kasten açıklanması durumunda ihtiyar ve rızâ birlikte bulunmuş olur, bu durumda “sahih ihtiyar” söz konusudur. Sonuca razı olunmaması durumunda ise sadece ihtiyar vardır ve bu durumdaki ihtiyar “fâsid ihtiyar”dır. Hanefîler’in bu yaklaşımına göre rızâ ihtiyardan daha özel bir anlama sahip olup rızânın varlığı için ihtiyarın varlığı zorunlu ise de ihtiyarın varlığı rızânın varlığına bağlı değildir.
Rızâ-ihtiyar ayırımının en belirgin sonuçları ikrah, hezl, hata gibi şaibeli bir iradeyle gerçekleşen tasarrufların hükmünün belirlenmesinde ortaya çıkar. İkrahı tam ikrah (ikrâh-ı mülcî) ve eksik ikrah (ikrâh-ı gayr-i mülcî) şeklinde ikiye ayıran Hanefîler, birinci tür ikrahın rızâyı yok edip ihtiyarı ifsat edeceğini, ikinci tür ikrahın ise rızâyı ifsat etmekle birlikte ihtiyarı etkilemeyeceğini belirtirler. Buna göre ikrah rızâya her durumda aykırıdır, fakat ihtiyara her durumda aykırı değildir. Çünkü her ne kadar rızâdan kaynaklanmadığı için fâsid bir seçim olsa da mükreh kasıtlı bir seçimde bulunmuştur. İkrah durumunda ihtiyarın fâsid olmasının sebebi, kişinin ihtiyarının hür irade kaynaklı olmayıp başka birinin (mükrih) ihtiyarı üzerine bina edilmiş olmasıdır. Bu bakımdan Hanefîler’e göre ikrah altında kalan kişi, iki şeyden birini tercih noktasında seçme imkânına sahip olduğu için ihtiyar tam olarak ikrahın değil rızânın zıddıdır. İhtiyarın zıddı ise kişiye seçme imkânı bırakmayan ıztırar ve cebir durumudur.
Hukukî işlemleri feshe elverişli olan ve olmayan şeklinde ikiye ayıran Hanefîler birinci grupta yer alan satım, icâre gibi işlemlere rızâ-ihtiyar ayırımını daha ölçülü tarzda tatbik ederken ikinci grubu oluşturan talâk, ıtk, nikâh gibi tasarruflarda bu ayırımı bütünüyle dikkate alırlar. Bu sebeple mükrehin alım satımı rızâ bulunmayıp ihtiyar bulunduğu için fâsid olarak in‘ikad eder. Bu tür işlemlerde ihtiyar in‘ikad şartı, rızâ ise sıhhat şartı konumundadır (Karadâğî, I, 216-225). Halbuki mükrehin ikinci gruptaki nikâh, ıtk, talâk gibi feshe elverişli bulunmayan ve rızâ da şart olmayan tasarrufları sahih ve bağlayıcıdır. Öte yandan diğer ekollerden farklı olarak Hanefîler’in sıhhat ve butlân mertebeleri arasında “fesad” olarak niteledikleri bir ara mertebe ihdas etmeleri, onların akidlerde ihtiyar-rızâ ayırımı yapmalarıyla da yakından ilgilidir.
Hanefîler’in anlayışına göre mükreh gibi, latife beyanında bulunan (hâzil) ve hata eden kişi de ihtiyar sahibidir (bk. GALAT ; HATA ; HEZL ). Hâzil her ne kadar hükme razı olmamış ve onu ihtiyar etmemiş olsa da sebebi, yani icap ve kabulü konuluş amacı dışında bir amaç için de olsa ihtiyar etmiştir. Bu bakımdan hâzilin sebebe ilişkin ihtiyarı tamdır. Yine bir kimseden kasıtsız olarak, yanlışlıkla sâdır olan ve karşı tarafın kabulüyle buluşan akid kurucu sözleri de tıpkı mükrehin satımında olduğu gibi akdin fâsid şekilde in‘ikadına yol açar. Hatalı kişinin de bu telaffuzu sebebiyle (vaz‘an) yahut akıl ve bulûğun kasıt yerine geçirilmesinde olduğu gibi takdiren ihtiyarı var kabul edilir (Abdülazîz el-Buhârî, IV, 1502).
İhtiyar kavramının fıkıh usulünde terimleşmiş bu anlamının dışında kök anlamından kopmadan daha başka anlamlarda kullanıldığı da görülür. Bunlardan biri, fıkıh usulündeki “vücûb” kavramının açıklanmasında onunla karşıtlık ilişkisi içinde kullanımıdır. Bir şeyin vücûbu, usulcüler tarafından kulun ihtiyarının söz konusu olmadığı bir “haber” olarak tavsif edilir (Serahsî, II, 333-335). Bu nitelendirme vâcip kılınan hususlarda ihtiyarın rolünün bulunmadığını, mükellefe bir tercih hakkı tanınmadığını ve ihtiyarın özellikle inşâ edilmesi kula bırakılmış konularda söz konusu olacağını ifade eder. Velâyetin sübûtunun kişilerin ihtiyarına bağlı olmaksızın şer‘an sabit olduğunun söylenmesi de (a.g.e. , II, 345) aynı şekilde değerlendirilebilir.
Literatürde yer alan, ihtiyarın belli kişi veya dönemlerle sınırlı olduğu, Ebû Hanîfe’den sonra kimsenin ihtiyar yetkisinin bulunmadığı ya da Evzâî, Süfyân es-Sevrî, Vekî‘ b. Cerrâh ve İbnü’l-Mübârek’ten sonra veya Şâfiî’den sonra ihtiyarın câiz olmadığı tarzındaki ifadelerden (İbn Hazm, IV, 146, 225-226; İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, II, 275-277) ve “ehlü’l-ihtiyâr”ın icmâından söz eden müelliflerden (Bâkıllânî, s. 468) hareketle ihtiyar kelimesinin “bağımsız ictihad” anlamında, ehlü’l-ihtiyâr tabirinin ise özellikle müctehid imamlar dönemi diye bilinen II-III. (VIII-IX.) yüzyıllardaki müctehidleri ifadede kullanıldığı söylenebilir. Öte yandan “halifenin seçimini gerçekleştirecek heyet” anlamındaki “ehlü’l-hal ve’l-akd” tabirinin yerine bazan “ehlü’l-ictihâd”, bazan da “ehlü’l-ihtiyâr” tabirinin kullanılmış olması, özellikle ilk dönemlerde ihtiyar tabirinin ictihad yerine kullanıldığı kanaatini destekleyen bir husus olarak değerlendirilebilir.
İhtiyar tabirinin fıkhın fürûuna ait literatürde de değişik kullanımları bulunmaktadır. Bunlardan biri ihtiyarın, özellikle hukuk düzeni tarafından öngörülmüş veya tanınmış muhayyerlikler konusunda mevcut seçeneklerden birinin alınmasını ifadede kullanılmasıdır. Nitekim alıcı veya satıcının muhayyerlik şartını içeren satım akdi literatürde “bey‘u’l-ihtiyâr” (Rassâ‘, II, 378-379) ve “bey‘u’l-hıyâr” (İbn Cüzey, s. 299) olarak adlandırılmaktadır (bk. MUHAYYERLİK ).
İhtiyarın fıkıh literatüründe başka birçok kullanımı da bulunmakla birlikte bunlar daha çok kelimenin sözlük anlamı çerçevesindedir. Mülkiyet sebeplerinin cebrî ve ihtiyarî şeklinde ikiye ayrılması, ihtiyar kelimesinin kocanın karısına da boşama hakkı tanımasını (tefvîz) ifade edişi ya da halifenin nasla tayini kavramının karşıtı olarak kullanımı bunun örnekleri olduğu gibi yeminini bozan kişinin öngörülmüş kefâret seçeneklerinden birini alması, haccın türlerinden birinin tercih edilmesi, hidâne süresinin sonunda çocuğun ana babadan birini seçmesi, iftarla oruç arasında muhayyer bırakılmış olan yolcunun bunlardan birini tercih etmesi gibi hususlarda da ihtiyar kelimesi yine böyle bir anlam çerçevesinde kullanılmıştır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Tehânevî, Keşşâf , I, 419-421, 552-556.
Fârâbî, es-Siyâsetü’l-medeniyye , Beyrut 1986, s. 72-73.
Ebû Hilâl el-Askerî, el-Furûḳ fi’l-luġa , Beyrut 1403/1983, s. 114-126.
Bâkıllânî, et-Temhîd (İmâdüddin) , s. 442, 468.
İbn Hazm, el-İḥkâm (nşr. Ahmed Muhammed Şâkir), Beyrut 1403/1983, IV, 146, 225-226.
Serahsî, el-Uṣûl (nşr. Ebü’l-Vefâ el-Efgānî), Haydarâbâd 1372 → Beyrut 1973, II, 333-335, 345.
Gazzâlî, İḥyâʾ , Kahire 1387/1968, IV, 315-317.
Kâsânî, Bedâʾiʿ , VII, 175.
İbn Kudâme, el-Muġnî , VII, 262; XIII, 186, 436.
Şehâbeddin ez-Zencânî, Taḫrîcü’l-fürûʿ ʿale’l-uṣûl (nşr. M. Edîb Sâlih), Beyrut 1402/1982, s. 285-287.
Abdülazîz el-Buhârî, Keşfü’l-esrâr , IV, 1501-1511.
İbn Cüzey, Ḳavânînü’l-aḥkâmi’ş-şerʿiyye , Beyrut 1979, s. 299.
Sadrüşşerîa, et-Tavżîḥ , II, 196.
İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, İʿlâmü’l-muvaḳḳıʿîn , II, 275-277.
İbnü’l-Hümâm, et-Taḥrîr (İbn Emîru Hâc, et-Taḳrîr ve’t-taḥbîr içinde), Bulak 1316, II, 205-206.
Rassâ‘, Şerḥu Ḥudûdi İbn ʿArafe (nşr. Muhammed Ebü’l-Ecfân – Tâhir el-Mağmûrî), Beyrut 1993, II, 378-379.
Ebü’l-Bekā, el-Külliyyât , s. 62, 73-74.
Ali Haydar, Dürerü’l-hükkâm , III, 15-19.
Mustafa Ahmed ez-Zerkā, el-Fıḳhü’l-İslâmî fî sevbihi’l-cedîd , Dımaşk 1967-68, I, 246, 255-256, 368-374.
J. Schacht, İslâm Hukukuna Giriş (trc. Mehmet Dağ – Abdülkadir Şener), Ankara 1977, s. 206.
M. Ebû Zehre, el-Milkiyye ve naẓariyyetü’l-ʿaḳd , Kahire 1977, s. 221-242.
M. Mustafa Şelebî, el-Medḫal fi’t-taʿrîf bi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî , Beyrut 1403/1983, s. 451-454.
Ali Muhyiddin el-Karadâğî, Mebdeʾü’r-rıżâ fi’l-ʿuḳūd , Beyrut 1406/1985, I, 216-225.
L. Gardet, “Ik̲h̲tiyār”, EI2 (Fr.) , III, 1089-1090.
“İḫtiyâr”, Mv.Fİ , IV, 103-122.
“İḫtiyâr”, Mv.F , II, 315-318.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2000 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 21. cildinde, 575-576 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.