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İLM-i FELEK Skip to content İslâm bilim tarihinde astronomi karşılığında kullanılan terim.
“Gökküresi bilimi” anlamına gelen ilm-i felek terimi İslâm dünyasında aynı zamanda “felekiyyât, ilm-i nücûm, ilm-i nücûm-i ta‘lîmî, sınâat-i nücûm, sınâat-i tencîm, ilm-i hey’e, ilm-i hey’eti’l-âlem” de denilen astronominin en yaygın karşılığıdır. Astronomi aritmetik, geometri ve mûsikiyle birlikte aklî ilimler tasnifindeki matematik bilimlerini (ilm-i ta‘lîmî, ilm-i riyâzî, riyâziyyât) oluşturur. Latinler’in “quadrivium”una tekabül eden bu dört bilime Fârâbî’nin tasnifinde mekanik ve optik de eklenmiştir (İḥṣâʾü’l-ʿulûm , s. 102-103). Bu tasnif, astronomiyle astrolojinin (ilm-i ahkâm-ı nücûm) çok erken bir dönemde birbirinden ayırt edildiğini ortaya koyması bakımından önemlidir.
İhvân-ı Safâ’nın tanımlamasına göre ilm-i felek üç dala ayrılır: Birincisi feleklerin yapısını, yıldızlar ve sayıları, burçlar, büyüklükleri, aralarındaki uzaklıklar ve hareketleri; ikincisi astronomi cetvellerinin (zîc; ezyâc, zîcât) kullanımı, takvimlerin düzenlenmesi, tarihlerin tesbiti; üçüncüsü feleklerin dönüşü, burçların doğuşu ve yıldızların hareketinden dünyada olabilecekler hakkında bilgi çıkarılmasıyla ilgilidir (Resâʾil , I, 114). İbn Sînâ da aynı açıklamaları yapmakla birlikte tıp ve fizyonomoni (yüz hatlarından insan tanıma) gibi tabiat bilimlerinin alt dalları arasında sıraladığı astrolojiyi bu tanımlamanın dışında tutmaktadır (Risâle fî aḳsâmi’l-ʿulûmi’l-ʿaḳliyye , s. 111-112). Aristo ve eserlerini şerhedenlerden esinlenerek yapılan bu tanımlama, astronomi ve astrolojiyi birbirinden ayıran İslâm filozoflarının büyük çoğunluğu tarafından kabul görmüştür. Çünkü astronomi hesabı esas alırken astroloji tabiat olaylarından çıkarılan işaretlere ve birtakım spekülasyonlara dayanır. Batlamyus’un Tetrabiblon adlı eserindeki fikirleri benimseyen astrologlar ise bu ayırımı kabul etmemişlerdir (bk. İLM-i AHKÂM-ı NÜCÛM ). Çağındaki İslâm ilim birikiminin bir değerlendirmesini yapan İbn Haldûn da astronomi için, “Bu bilim geometri yöntemlerine başvurarak, gökyüzündeki yıldızlarla gezegenlerin bulundukları yer ve konumlar itibariyle sergiledikleri gözlenebilir hareketleri tesbit eder ve inceler” der ve daha sonra da şunu ekler: “İlm-i felek değerli bir ilimdir. Ancak yaygın kanaatin aksine gök cisimlerinin yerlerini (göklerin görüntüsünü) gerçekte olduğu gibi değil tesbit edilebilen semavî hareketlerden çıkardığı kadarıyla verir (Muḳaddime , III, 1134-1135). İlm-i feleğin kesin bir tanımını yapamayan İslâm astronomları, Batlamyus döneminin Yunanlı bilginleri gibi sadece gök cisimlerinin hareketleriyle ilgilenmiş, görünen bütün durumlardaki hareketleri açıklamak için geometrik şekiller kullanmış ve bu şekiller yardımıyla yıldızların yerlerini istenilen her vakitte hesaplayabilmişlerdir. Böylece gökteki hareketlerin menşei ve bütün gök cisimlerinin mahiyetine dair araştırmalar astronominin dışında bırakılmış ve tabiat felsefesi sahası içine alınmıştır. Buna göre de meselâ İslâm bilginlerinin gökte dairevî olmayan hareketlerin varlığını neden imkânsız gördüklerini, gökteki hareketlerin menşeini, feleklerle yıldızların mahiyetini ve niçin küre şeklinde olduklarını öğrenmek isteyen bir kimse, tabiat felsefesiyle ilgili felsefe veya kelâm kitaplarına başvurmak zorunda kalmıştır.
İslâm astronomi tarihinde dört aşama söz konusudur: 1. İslâm Öncesi Dönem ve İslâm’ın Başlangıç Yılları. Şiirlere bakılacak olursa bütün ihtişamıyla gök yüzünün incelenmesi bu dönemde olağan bir durumdu. Araplar’da Süreyyâ yıldızından söz eden 421 şiirden yirmi altısı 132 (750) yılından önceye aittir. Aynı oran, 132-287 (750-900) yılları arasında yazılmış şiirler için de geçerlidir (Kunitzsch – Ullmann, s. 145 vd.; Pellat, II [1955], s. 17-41). Bu şiirlerde anlatılanlar, mecaz ve istiarelerle sınırlı bir ifadeye bürünmekle birlikte göğün durumu ve yıldızların hareketlerinden çıkarılan meteorolojik bilgileri de kapsıyor, özellikle bazı yıldızların güneşten biraz önce doğması ve onunla birlikte batması arasındaki süreyle ilgilenen ve Araplar’ın iftihar vesilesi olan ilm-i envâa dair bilgilere geniş yer ayırıyordu. İlm-i envâ’ gözlemleriyle ilgili zengin bir edebiyat oluşmuş ve Fuat Sezgin “kütüb-i envâ’” denilen bu edebiyat ürünü kitaplardan otuz yedisinin listesini vermiştir (GAS , VII, 336, 445). Paul Kunitzsch de Araplar’ca bilinen 300’den fazla yıldız hakkında Untersuchungen zur Sternnomenklatur der Araber adıyla (Wiesbaden 1961) müstakil bir çalışma yapmıştır.
Sabit yıldızlar, meteorolojik tahminlerin dışında geceleri çölde yön bulmak ve mevsimleri belirlemek amacıyla da gözlenmekteydi. Ayrıca bu yıldızlardan bazılarına tapılıyordu; meselâ Himyerîler güneşe, Kinâne kabilesi aya, Lahm ve Cüzâm kabileleri Müşteri’ye (Jüpiter), Kays kabilesi Şi‘râ’ya (Sirius) ve Esed kabilesi Utârid’e (Merkür) tapıyordu. Şi‘râ yıldızı envâ’ kitaplarında önemli bir yere sahipti; Kur’an’da da Şi‘râ’nın rabbinin Allah olduğu ifade edilmektedir (en-Necm 53/49). İlk müslümanlar bu meselelerle pek fazla ilgilenmediler. Ancak Kur’an’da gök cisimlerine oldukça fazla atıf yapıldığı görülmektedir. Meselâ felek güneş, ay ve yıldızların içinde yüzdüğü gökküre anlamında kullanılmıştır (el-Enbiyâ 21/33; Yâsîn 36/40); Allah’ın buyruğuna teslim olan yıldızlar (el-A‘râf 7/54; en-Nahl 16/12; el-Hac 22/18) birer yol göstericidir (el-En‘âm 6/97; en-Nahl 16/16); gezegenler (kevâkib) göklerin aydınlatıcıları (et-Tekvîr 81/15-16; et-Târık 86/3) ve ziynetleridir (el-En‘âm 6/76; en-Nûr 24/35; es-Sâffât 37/6); burçlar göğün işaretlerinden olan, yani yolculara yol gösteren büyük yıldızlar yahut ayın konaklarıdır (el-Hicr 15/16; el-Furkān 25/61; el-Burûc 85/1). Aynı zamanda günleri, geceleri ve yılları hesaplamaya yarayan aydan yirmi altı, güneşten otuz iki defa bahsedilmiştir.
2. Tercümeler Dönemi. Bu döneme kadar müslümanların astronomik bilgileri sadece yıldız gözlemleriyle sınırlı kalıyor ve bu bilgilerin teknik olmaktan çok şiirsel yönü ağır basıyordu. Fetihler yabancı kaynaklara ulaşma imkânı sağlayınca İslâm bilgin ve düşünürlerinin önünde geniş ufuklar açıldı. Emevî halifeliğinin son yıllarında Hermes’e nisbet edilen astrolojiye dair bir kitabın Kitâb Münḳalebü sini’l-ʿâlem ve mâ fîhi mine’l-każâʾ ve Zerdüşt’e nisbet edilen aynı türde bir başka kitabın Kitâbü Zerâdüşt fi’n-nücûm ve teʾs̱îrâtihâ ve’l-ḥükm ʿale’l-mevâlîd (Kitâbü Zerâdüşt fî ṣuveri dereci’l-felek) adıyla Arapça’ya yapılan çevirileri, Arap astrologları ve özellikle Mâşâallah b. Eserî tarafından kullanıldı (Sezgin, VII, 53, 81). Bu eserlerle birlikte Arap diline yeni astronomi terimleri girmeye başladı ve daha sonraki çeviriler sayesinde terminolojik zenginleşme kesintisiz sürdü. II. (VIII.) yüzyıl başlarındaki astronomiyle ilgili bilgilerin en önemli tanığı, Batı Ürdün’deki Emevîler’e ait Kusayru Amre sarayının büyük salonuna açılan hamamın sıcaklık kısmını örten kubbedir. Bu kubbenin üzerinde ekliptik koordinatlar ve ekvatorla birlikte 400 civarında yıldızın yer aldığı bir gök haritası bulunuyordu (Beer, s. 296-303).
İslâm toplumunda gerçek anlamıyla astronomi bilimi, Brahmagupta’nın 770 yılı civarında yazdığı Sanskritçe Brahmasphutasiddhanta adlı eserin Halife Mansûr’un isteğiyle es-Sindhind (Siddhanta) başlığı altında Arapça’ya çevrilmesi üzerine başlamış ve ilk defa İbrâhim b. Habîb el-Fezârî, ez-Zîc ʿalâ sini’l-ʿArab adlı çalışmasında (Sezgin, VI, 118-120, 122; Nallino, Raccolta, V, 203), İslâmî günlerin kamerî takvime göre hesaplanması için kullanılacak cetvellerin düzenlenmesiyle ilgili temel bilgi ve yöntemlerin ana hatlarını vermiştir. Aynı yüzyılda Ya‘kūb b. Târık Terkîbü’l-eflâk adlı eseri yazmış, İbn Hibintâ da bu kitaptan el-Muġnî fî aḥkâmi’n-nücûm ’unu yazarken sık sık faydalanmıştır (Nallino, Raccolta, V, 219; Sezgin, VI, 124-127). Aslında bu dönem özgün çalışmalar ortaya koymak bakımından sönük geçmiştir. Elde edilen en kayda değer sonuç, o zamanlar yeryüzünün merkezî meridyeni olarak kabul edilen Uzeyn meridyenine ait astronomi cetvellerinin Batlamyus’un 90° batı meridyenine taşınmasıdır. Bu arada müslümanlar, Hint yazmalarından trigonometrinin ilk kavramlarını da öğrenmişlerdir. Yüzyılın sonlarına doğru Batlamyus’un el-Mecisṭî ’sinin tercüme edilmesi, İslâm astronomisinin gelişmesine büyük bir hız kazandırdı. Haccâc b. Yûsuf b. Matar, Neyrîzî ve İshak b. Huneyn tarafından da tercüme edilen eser hakkında Sâbit b. Kurre incelemeler yaptı. el-Mecisṭî üzerinde Sâbit b. Kurre’den başka İslâm bilim tarihinin klasik dönemi boyunca Câbir b. Hayyân, Fergānî, Hâzin, İbnü’l-Heysem, Câbir b. Eflah ve İbn Rüşd gibi âlimler tarafından da defalarca çalışılmış, açıklama ve özetler yazılmıştır (Sezgin, VI, 83-96).
3. Yükseliş Dönemi. Bu dönemdeki İslâm âlimlerinin astronomiye katkıları özellikle gözlem verilerinin arttırılması, astronomi aletlerinin geliştirilmesi, gök cisimlerinin görünen hareketlerinin iyi modellendirilmesi ve bu sayede matematiksel yöntemlerin geliştirilmesi şeklinde olmuştur. Halife Me’mûn, Bağdat’taki Şemmâsiye mahallesiyle Dımaşk’ın kuzeyindeki Kāsiyûn tepesinde yapılan gözlemlere bir ivme kazandırdı. Astronomi bilginleri, Batlamyus’un verilerinin “sağlamasını yapmak” gibi bir görev üstlenmişlerdi. Bu çalışmaların sonuçları, Me’mûn’un astronom-astrologu Yahyâ b. Ebû Mansûr tarafından ez-Zîcü(el-Ḳıyâsü)’l-mümteḥan ’da verilmiştir (krş. a.g.e. , V, 227; VI, 19 vd., 136-137). Yahyâ b. Ebû Mansûr’un eseri, el-Mecisṭî ’den sonra gerçekleştirilen büyük gelişmeyi göstermektedir. Bu gelişme, rasatlardan elde edilen astronomik bilgilerin kesinlik kazanmasından kaynaklanıyordu ve bu kesinliğe paralaktik açı tanımı, güneş veya su saatleri ve uzun açı ölçerler gibi elemanlar sayesinde ulaşılabilmişti. Ayrıca müslümanlar, İznikli Hipparkos’un (m.ö. II. yüzyıl) zamanından beri bilinen usturlabı geliştirdiler ve ondan, küresel bir üçgene ait grafik-mekanik çözümleri kullanarak gözlenen yıldızın saat açısının tayini gibi bazı astronomi problemlerinin çözümünde faydalandılar.
Bu dönemin büyük astronomları arasında, Halife Me’mûn zamanında görev yapan ve aynı zamanda matematikçi, coğrafyacı olan Muhammed b. Mûsâ el-Hârizmî başta gelir. Me’mûn’un el-Mecisṭî ’yi şerhetmek üzere bilginleri Bağdat’a toplaması ve Bağdat’taki astronomik gözlemler için yeni aletlerin temini onun gayretleriyle gerçekleşmiştir (Rybka, s. 583). Hârizmî’nin, Latince’ye çevrilen ve birçok defa şerhedilen Zîcü’s-Sindhind adlı eseriyle ilgili olarak Ebû Mesleme b. Ahmed el-Mecrîtî çalışmalar yapmıştır (Sezgin, VI, 140-142). Fergānî kitaplarını 218-247 (833-861) yılları arasında kaleme almıştır. Onun en önemli eseri olan Cevâmiʿu ʿilmi’n-nücûm ve uṣûlü’l-ḥarekâti’s-semâviyye Latince ve İbrânîce’ye çevrilmiştir (a.g.e. , VI, 149-151). İslâm astronomisinde büyük izler bırakan bu kitap Batlamyus’un Kitâbü’l-İḳtiṣâṣ (Kitâbü’l-Menşûrât) adıyla Arapça’ya çevrilen eserinin etkisi altında yazılmıştır. Meşhur astronom-astrolog Ebû Ma‘şer el-Belhî kendisini Doğu’da ve Batı’da şöhrete ulaştıran birçok eser bıraktı. Gökyüzünde aynı boylam üzerinde buluşan gezegenlerin durumunu konu edinen Kitâbü’l-Ḳırânât ’ı hakkında çeşitli şerhler yazılmıştır (a.g.e. , VII, 144). XVI. yüzyılın en büyük astronomlarından olan Tycho Brahe gezegenlerle ilgili teorisini açıklarken Ebû Ma‘şer’in adını vermektedir (Hartner, La science , s. 137-146). Matematik, astronomi ve tıp bilgini Sâbit b. Kurre yıldızların salınım ve titreşim teorisiyle kendini tanıttı; önceleri Batlamyus’un şârihi İskenderiyeli Théon tarafından da savunulan bu teorinin yanlış olduğu daha sonra ortaya çıkmıştır. Ortaçağ Avrupası’nın astronomi ile ilgili düşüncelerini büyük ölçüde etkileyen Sâbit b. Kurre, Batlamyus’un sekiz felekten meydana gelen sistemine bir dokuzuncusunu (primum mobil) eklemiştir. Diğer bir astronomi bilgini de Batı’da Albategnius adıyla bilinen Harranlı Muhammed el-Bettânî’dir. Bettânî, el-Câmiʿ fî ḥisâbi’n-nücûm ve mevâżıʿi mesîrihe’l-mümteḥan adlı zîcinin XII. yüzyılda Latince’ye çevrilmesi sebebiyle Ortaçağ Avrupası’nda geniş ölçüde tanınıyordu (bu tercüme Carlo Alfonso Nallino tarafından Al-Battânî sive Albatenii opus astronomicum ad fidem codicis escurialensis arabice editum latine versum, adnotationibus instructum adıyla neşredilmiştir [I-II, Milano 1899-1907]). Milâdî 877-919 yılları arasında Rakka’da gözlem yapan Bettânî özellikle güneş ve ayın hareketleriyle ilgileniyordu. Batlamyus’un el-Mecisṭî ’deki teorisine göre oluşturduğu cetvellerinde beş gezegene dair veriler de bulunmaktaydı ve o kendi gözlemlerine dayanarak Batlamyus’un ortaya koyduğu birçok sayısal veriyi düzeltmişti (ayrıntılı bilgi için bk. Rybka, s. 584). Bu dönemin astronomları Batlamyus’un eserini temel alıyor ve onun hipotezlerinde bazı düzeltmelere gidiyorlardı. Bunların, o zamanlar hemen hemen herkese ilgi çekici gelen astrolojik uygulamalar için yaptıkları gözlemler, özellikle gezegenlere ait olanlar kayda değer çalışmalardır.
Bir sonraki dönemin (X-XI. yüzyıl) âlimleri Mısır Fâtımîleri, Endülüs Emevîleri gibi ayrı halifeliklerde, yahut Asya’da Abbâsî halifeliğinden bağımsızlık almış bölgelerde yaşayan bilginlerdi. Bunların başında Bîrûnî gelmektedir ve astronomiyle ilgili temel eseri, 421 (1030) yılına doğru tamamladığı el-Ḳānūnü’l-Mesʿûdî adlı kitabıdır. Çağdaşı olan, Batılılar’ın Alhazen diye adlandırdıkları İbnü’l-Heysem’in yazdığı Maḳāle fî heyʾeti’l-ʿâlem Latince ve İbrânîce’ye çevrildi ve Batı astronomi bilginleri üzerinde büyük bir etki yaptı; bunlar arasında özellikle Theoricae novae planetarum adlı kitabın yazarı Georg von Peurbach ile Copernicus, Regiomontanus ve Reinhold zikredilebilir (geniş bilgi için bk. Sezgin, VI, 251-261). Batı’da Arzachel adıyla bilinen Zerkālî, Latince’ye de çevrilen Tuleytula Zîci adlı kitabın yazarıdır. Bu zîc Peurbach, Copernicus ve Kepler’in de haberdar olduğu Alfonsine Cetvelleri’nin düzenlenmesinde kullanılmıştır. XII. yüzyıldan itibaren müslüman astronomlar Batlamyus’un hipotezlerini terketmeye başladılar. Bunu ilk başlatan İbn Bâcce (Avempace) olmuş, onu Câbir b. Eflah (Geber), Gırnatalı İbn Tufeyl (Abubacer) ve İbn Tufeyl’in öğrencisi Merakeşli Bitrûcî izlemiştir. Bitrûcî’nin öne sürdüğü ve muhtemelen gerçek kurucusunun İbn Tufeyl olduğu gezegenlerin hareketleriyle ilgili teorinin temelinde Aristo’nun ortaya attığı eşmerkezli küreler teorisine dönüş yatmaktadır (Rybka, s. 587-588).
4. Gerileme Dönemi. Endülüs’ün hıristiyanlar tarafından işgal edilmesi, ülkede yürütülen astronomi alanındaki araştırmaların sonu oldu. Ancak bu araştırmalar Moğol istilâsından sonra İran’da yeniden canlandı ve gelişti. Astronomi çalışmalarını himaye eden Hülâgû, Azerbaycan’daki Merâga’da yeni bir rasathâne yaptırdı ve idaresini de Nasîrüddîn-i Tûsî’ye verdi. Bu rasathânede çok sayıda rasat aleti ve rivayete göre 400.000’den fazla kitap bulunuyordu. Merâga Rasathânesi’nde toplanan çok sayıdaki bilginin Nasîrüddîn-i Tûsî’nin başkanlığında gerçekleştirdiği on iki yıl süren gözlemler sonunda, adını Hülâgû’nun unvanından alan ünlü Zîc-i İlḫânî oluşturuldu. Bu arada Batlamyus’un gezegenlerin hareketleriyle ilgili teorisi değiştirilerek yerine başka bir teorinin temeli atıldı. Nasîrüddîn-i Tûsî, bu yeni teoriyi öğrencilerine okuttuğu Teẕkire ’sinde işlemiştir. Onun en tanınmış takipçisi olan İbnü’ş-Şâtır güneşin ekvatora eğiminin derecesini yeniden belirledi ve beş gezegenin hareketleri için de yeni bir model öne sürdü (Kennedy – Roberts, L [1959], s. 227-235).
Müslümanların astronomi sahasındaki son sıçramaları XV. yüzyılda Semerkant’ta gerçekleştirildi. Timurlu Hükümdarı Uluğ Bey aynı zamanda büyük bir astronomi bilginiydi ve içinde, yarıçapı 43 m. olan büyük bir rubu‘ dairesinin yer aldığı bir rasathâne kurmuştu (Sayılı, s. 259-276; Rybka, s. 590). Uluğ Bey’in başlıca eseri, otuz yıl boyunca Semerkant’ta yaptığı gözlemlere dayanarak oluşturduğu Zîc-i Uluġ Bey (Zîc-i Cedîd-i Sulṭânî) denilen zîcdir (L. A. Sédillot bu eseri Prolégomènes des tables astronomiques d’Ouloug-Beg adlı çalışmasında incelemiştir [I-II, Paris 1847-1853, II. cildi zîcin Fransızca tercüme ve açıklamasını da ihtiva etmektedir]). Uluğ Bey’in ölümünden sonra İslâm astronomisinin gelişimi durmuş, fakat Latince’ye yapılan sayısız tercüme sebebiyle modern Avrupa astronomisini etkilemesi ve öncü astronomlarına verdiği ilmî destek bütün canlılığı ile devam etmiştir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2000 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 22. cildinde, 126-129 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır. Bu madde en son 07.12.2019 tarihinde güncellenmiştir.