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İLMÜ’l-CEMÂL Skip to content Güzellik bilimi, estetik.
Sözlükte “güzellik” anlamına gelen cemâl kelimesi, sanat felsefesi terimi olarak genellikle eşya ve olgularda varlığı hissedilen ve insan ruhunda beğenme, hoşlanma, zevk alma gibi olumlu duygular ve yargılar doğuran nitelikleri ifade eder. İlmü’l-cemâl ise “güzellik bilimi” demek olup güzelliğin mahiyeti, ilkeleri, sanatla ilgili değer yargıları, güzellik teorileri gibi konuları araştıran estetik kelimesinin çağdaş Arapça’daki karşılığıdır (Cemîl Salîbâ, I, 407-408). Estetik Grekçe’de “duyum, duyulur, algı” mânasına gelen aisthesis yahut “duyu ile algılamak” anlamındaki aishanesthai den gelir. Konularının çoğu insanları eski çağlardan beri meşgul etmekle birlikte estetiğin bir bilgi dalının adı olması, Alexander G. Baumgarten’in Aesthetica (1750-1758) adlı eserinin yayımlanmasından sonradır. Kant da estetiği Salt Aklın Eleştirisi ’nde “duyusallık”, Yargıgücünün Eleştirisi ’nde ise “sanat felsefesi” mânasında kullanır. Genellikle “güzelliğin bilimi” diye tarif edilmekle beraber bu tarifin sınırlarını aşmış bir disiplin olan estetik sanat eserinin yaratılması, bir varlık alanı olarak sanat eseri, sanat eseriyle ilişkileri açısından tabiat, sanat eserinin değerlendirilmesi (eleştiri) ve zevk gibi konuları içine alan bir bilgi dalı ve sanat tarihi, sosyoloji, antropoloji, hatta biyoloji gibi ilimlerle ilişkisi bulunan bir felsefî ve psikolojik teoriler toplamıdır. Bu teoriler, kökleri Greko-Latin kültürüne uzanan bir dünya görüşüne dayandığı için estetik kelimesi, Batı kültürü dışında kalan kültürlerin sanat ve güzellik anlayışlarını açıklamakta yetersiz kalmaktadır. Özellikle İslâm sanatlarını izah ederken bütünüyle Batı sanatları ve felsefesi etrafında oluşmuş bir kavram çerçevesine atıfta bulunulduğu takdirde yanlış sonuçlara ulaşılabilir.
Arapça’da estetik karşılığında ilmü’l-cemâlin yanında el-cemâliyyât, felsefetü’l-cemâl, felsefetü’l-fen gibi tabirler de kullanılmaktadır. Osmanlı aydınları güzellik bilimi olarak anladıkları estetiği ilm-i hüsn diye adlandırmayı düşünmüşlerdir. Estetik hakkında derli toplu ilk makaleleri yazan ve belli başlı estetik teorilerini gözden geçiren Hüseyin Cahit (Yalçın), bu bilime Türkçe’de ilm-i ihsâsât yahut ilm-i hüsn denilebileceğini söylerse de bir yığın mantıkî çıkarımdan sonra estetiğin güzel sanatlar felsefesi olduğu, dolayısıyla hikmet-i bedâyi‘ diye adlandırılabileceği sonucuna varır. 1912’den sonra, Kur’an’da geçen (el-Bakara 2/117; el-En‘âm 6/101) ve Allah’ın yaratmasındaki eşsizliği ifade eden bedî‘ kelimesinden türetilen bedîiyyât kullanılmaya başlanmış, daha sonra estetik yerleşmiştir.
Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de evrenin yaratılışıyla ilgili iki âyette (el-Bakara 2/117; el-En‘âm 6/101) Allah’ın yaratıcılığı “bedîu’s-semâvâti ve’l-arz” şeklinde ifade edilmiştir. Müfessirler genellikle buradaki bedî‘ kelimesinin “mübdi‘” anlamına geldiğini belirtmiş, bu kelimenin masdarı olan “ibdâ”ı da “ilk defa vücuda getirme, eşsiz ve örneksiz yaratma” şeklinde açıklamışlardır (meselâ bk. Fahreddin er-Râzî, XIII, 117-118; Şevkânî, I, 146). İḥyâʾü ʿulûmi’d-dîn ’deki bir cümlesine (IV, 258) atfen Gazzâlî’ye isnat edilen ve sonraki dönemlerde bir vecize haline gelen, ”ليس في الإمكان أبدع ممّا كان“ (Var olandan daha güzelini ortaya koymak imkânsızdır) cümlesinde de evrenin güzelliği ve mükemmelliği yine ibdâ‘ kavramıyla ifade edilmiştir. Muhyiddin İbnü’l-Arabî bu fikri, “Allah âlemi icat ve ihtirâ ederken onun yaratılışını tamamladı, ibdâ etti” şeklinde tekrarlarken yine bu Kur’an terimini kullanır (el-Fütûḥât , I, 169). Gerek bedî‘ kelimesinin geçtiği âyetler ve Hz. Peygamber’in, “Allah güzeldir, güzeli sever” (Müslim, “Îmân”, 147; İbn Mâce, “Duʿâʾ”, 10; Müsned , IV, 133, 134, 151) meâlindeki hadisi gibi dinî naslar, gerekse Grek kültüründen gelen etkilerle İslâm düşüncesinde güzellik her şeyden önce ilâhî bir gerçeklik ve bir değer olarak ele alınmıştır. Meselâ Fârâbî eksiksiz güzelliğin Allah’a mahsus olduğunu, O’nun güzelliğinin kendi özüne ait olmasına karşılık diğer varlıklardaki güzelliklerin birer arazdan ibaret bulunduğunu belirtir (el-Medîneti’l-fâżıla , s. 40). İbn Sînâ da hakiki güzelliğin Allah’a ait olduğunu ve O’nun katından evrene yayıldığını söyler (eş-Şifâʾ el-İlâhiyyât [1] , s. 27, a.e. [2] , s. 368-369; en-Necât , s. 590).
Bu temel düşünceye rağmen İslâm felsefesinde estetik konularına diğer felsefî problemler kadar ilgi gösterilmemiştir. Bunun ilk ve en önemli istisnası Gazzâlî’dir. Fârâbî ve İbn Sînâ’nın yukarıdaki görüşlerinden hareket ettiği anlaşılan Gazzâlî bilhassa İḥyâʾ ın ana bölümlerinden olan “Muhabbet, Şevk, Üns ve Rızâ Kitabı”nda (IV, 293-361) güzellik konusuna geniş yer ayırmış ve sevgiyi güzellik üstüne kurmuştur. Buna göre her güzellik sırf güzellik olduğu için onu algılayan tarafından sevilir; çünkü güzellik haz verir, haz ise tabii olarak sevilir (İḥyâʾ , IV, 298). Gazzâlî, güzelliğe duyulan ilginin sırf cinsî veya bedenî hazdan kaynaklanmadığını, aksine güzellikten hissedilenin başka bir haz olduğunu, güzelliğin bizâtihi sevildiğini vurgulayarak buna tabiatın güzelliklerini seyretmekten, su şırıltısını dinlemekten duyulan hazzı örnek gösterir. Güzelliği uyum ve orantıda gören yaygın felsefî görüşü Gazzâlî de benimser. Güzel bir at gibi güzel bir sanat ürününün, meselâ bir hüsn-i hat yahut mûsiki parçasının da kendi alanının ve türünün gerektirdiği mükemmelliğe yaklaşması ölçüsünde estetik değeri artar. Böylece ontolojik değerlerle estetik değerler arasında bir mahiyet birliği gören düşünür, felsefî kültürden gelen anlayışla estetikle ahlâk arasında da aynı ilişkiyi kurar (a.g.e. , IV, 299). Bu açıdan bakıldığında Allah’tan başka ontolojik, estetik ve ahlâkî bakımdan kusursuz olan hiçbir varlık yoktur. Şu halde “mutlak güzel” diye nitelenmesi gereken varlık sadece Allah’tır ve bütün güzellikler O’ndan gelmektedir (a.g.e. , IV, 305-306; krş. Fârâbî, s. 51-52; İbn Sînâ, en-Necât , s. 590; eş-Şifâʾ el-İlâhiyyât [1] , s. 27).
Daha sonraki dönemlerde az veya çok tasavvufî boyutlar da kazanarak (meselâ bk. İbnü’l-Arabî, Fusûsu’l-hikem , s. 399, 449; Mevlânâ, Mesnevî , IV, 7) sürdürülen bu teorik görüşler, İslâm medeniyet alanına giren çeşitli kültürlerden izler taşımakla birlikte temelde dinî inanç, düşünce ve dünya görüşü yönünde oluşmuş, sanat gelenekleri de bu çerçevede şekillenmiştir. Bölgeler arası farklılıklar bulunmakla beraber İslâm sanatı denilebilecek bütün ürünlerde İslâmî prensiplerin değişen ölçülerde uygulandığı görülür. Bu prensipler doğrultusunda sözü edilebilir estetik teorilerinin doğmamış olması, müslüman sanatkâr ve düşünürlerin sanatla ilgili yaklaşımlarının bir sonucudur. Her şeyden önce “sanat” (art) kavramının “güzel sanatlar” diye belirlenen çerçevesi çok yenidir ve yakın zamanlara kadar çeşitli sanat dalları ayrı ayrı bilimler (ilm-i mûsikī, ilm-i şi‘r gibi) olarak düşünülmüş, ayrıca sanatla zanaat (artisan) birbirinden kesin çizgilerle ayrılmamıştır. Şu halde İslâm sanatı denildiği zaman çok geniş bir faaliyet alanından söz edilmektedir. Bu alanda karşımıza çıkan zengin birikimi estetik açısından değerlendirmeye çalışırken göz önünde tutulması gereken ilke tasvir yasağıdır. Kur’an’da tasvir yasağının bulunmaması yanında hadislerdeki yasaklayıcı ifadelerin anlamı ve sınırı tartışmalı olsa da zamanla doktrinde tasvir yasağının yer aldığı, uygulamanın da bu yönde geliştiği, özellikle tabiatta canlı varlıkların resmedilmesine karşı umumi bir soğukluğun oluştuğu muhakkaktır. Müslüman sanatkârları dış dünyanın benzerini yapmak gibi temelde psikolojik nitelik taşıyan bir eğilime bağlı kalmaktan kurtararak nesnelerin iç yüzünü keşfetmeye yönelten bu yaklaşım İslâm estetiğinin tevhid kaygısına dayalı ikincil bir ilkesidir. Bu ilkenin pratikteki sonucu, eşyanın sadeleştirilip bir çeşit geometriye dönüştürülmesi yani soyutlanmasıdır. Böylece görünen dünyanın nesneleri ferdî özelliklerinden tek tek uzaklaşarak tümeli yansıtan klişeler haline gelir; biçimler özelden genele doğru değişerek sembolik karakter kazanır. Hatta zamanla elde edilen yeni biçim kaynağını hiç hatırlatmayacak şekilde dönüşüme uğrar. Bu güçlü geometrileşme iradesinin varlığı bütün İslâm sanatlarında hissedilmektedir.
Gerçeklik kavramının sadece duyularla algılanabilir dünyayı ifade edecek şekilde sınırlandırılması, antikiteyle XIII. yüzyılda kurulan ve Rönesans döneminde zirveye ulaşan bir ilişkinin sonucudur. Modern bilimlerin bugün bile yegâne gerçeklik olarak gördüğü duyularla kavranan dünya Rönesans’tan sonra sanatın tek kaynağı haline gelmişti. Sanatta perspektifin kazandığı önem de aynı sürece bağlıdır. Gerçekliğin bütün unsurlarının gözle göründüğü biçimde tasvir edilmeye başlandığı bu yeni dönem, Hıristiyanlığın dogmaları doğrultusunda gelişen romanesk ve gotikten kesin bir kopuşu da ifade ediyordu. Hakikatte hiçbir din gerçekliği duyularla algılanabilir dünya ile sınırlamamıştır.
Sûrete tapmayı yasaklayan hadisler, tevhid hususunda son derece duyarlı olan müslümanların zihninde tasvir yasağı olarak anlaşıldığı için soyuta yönelen müslüman sanatkârlar, soyutlama iradelerine vahdet-i vücûd nazariyesinde parlak bir karşılık buldular. Pratikte varılan sonuç hiçbir fenomenin doğrudan dile getirilmediği, iç gayesi görünenlerin ardındaki görünmeyene ulaşmak, dış gayesi ise dünyayı güzelleştirmek olan pürist bir sanat oldu. Bütün metafizik arka planına rağmen İslâm sanatı her zaman hayatın içindeydi; ancak esas olan seyretmek değil yaşamaktı.
Müslüman sanatkârın figürden kaçışı onu doğrudan doğruya soyut formlara yöneltti. Arap alfabesindeki şekil repertuvarı başlangıçta plastik açıdan son derece elverişsiz olduğu halde harf köşelerinin zamanla yuvarlaklaştırılarak zengin imkânlara sahip bir ifade vasıtasının elde edilmesi bu eğilimin önemli sonuçlarından biridir. Figürü cansızlaştırma eğilimi ise bir yandan tabiattan alınan şekillerin üslûplaştırılarak soyut formlara dönüşmesini sağlamış, bir yandan da diğer geleneklerden devralınan resmî bazı unsurlarından arındırarak bir çeşit nakışa dönüştürmenin ilkesi olmuştur. Sanat bu bakımdan dış dünyanın yerine benzerini, taklidini geçirmek (mimesis) gibi bir kaygının tamamen dışında, hatta sanatkârın ferdiyetinden de bağımsız bir arayıştır. Müslüman sanatkârlar, eserlerini bazan imzalarını bile atmayacak kadar kendi ferdiyetlerinin dışında düşünmüşlerdir. Ferdin bağımsız kişiliğinin paranteze alındığı gelenek sanatları zamanla bir çeşit “hirfet sanatı” haline gelmiştir. Sanatkârların kendilerinden öncekilerin ortaya koydukları birikimi elde etmeleri bir çeşit hirfettir; hatta birçok sanat eseri tek kişinin değil birçok kişinin ortak çalışmasının ürünüdür. Şiirde bile zamanla tahmîs, taştîr, nazîre gibi bir çeşit hirfet ürünü sayılabilecek bazı türler ortaya çıkmıştır. Üstelik bütün sanatkârların uymak zorunda oldukları çok sıkı kurallar vardır. Geleneğin böylesine kuşattığı bir sanat anlayışına bağlı kalarak orijinal eser vermek çok zor, fakat imkânsız değildir. Herhangi bir sanat dalında yetişmek isteyen heveskâr soyunduğu işin uzun bir çıraklık dönemi gerektirdiğini bilir. Orijinal eser vermenin ilk şartı sanatkârın kendisinden önce yapılanları özümsemiş olmasıdır.
İslâm estetiğinde sanatkâr güzelliği yaratan değil keşfedendir. Louis Massignon müslüman sanatkârın şuurlu olarak irreele yöneldiğini söylemektedir (Din ve Sanat içinde , s. 22). Sanatkârın Allah’ın yarattıklarına benzer şeyler ortaya koyduğu vehmine kapılıp yaratma heyecanı duyması hoş görülmemiştir. İslâm estetiğinde başından beri “yaratma” problemi yoktur; sanat zaten var olan bir niteliği, güzelliği araştırmak, ifade etmektir. Bütün varlık Allah’ın boyasıyla boyanmıştır: “Allah’tan daha güzel kim boyayabilir?” (el-Bakara 2/138). Gerçek güzellik nesnenin değişen niteliklerinde değil değişmeyen özündedir. Bu öze ancak soyutlama yoluyla ulaşılabilir. Soyutlamanın ilk aşaması olan stilizasyon (üslûplaştırma) nesneyi sadeleştirip temel çizgilerini yakalamaktır. Bu yaklaşım müslüman sanatkârı ister istemez şematizme götürür. Şematizmin yarattığı monotonluktan çeşitleme (tenevvü) yoluyla kurtulmaya çalışılmıştır; gerçek bir sanatkâr yaptığını asla tekrarlamaz.
Bu anlayış, müslümanların Aristo’nun Poetika ’sına ve antik sanatlara niçin fazla ilgi duymadığını da açıklamaktadır. Cansız şekilleri tesbit etmekle bir yere varamayacağını düşünen sanatkâr Allah’ı taklit ederek şirke düşmekten de korkuyordu. Tasvir yasağı estetiğin diline aktarılırsa çok eski bir kavram olmakla beraber önemini bugün de koruyan “mimesis” kavramı elde edilir. İslâm dünyasında Aristo’nun bütün eserleriyle asırlarca haşir neşir olunmasına rağmen mimesis teorisi önemsenmemiş, “Taklit insan tabiatı için esastır” önermesi, müslüman aydınlar tarafından “iyi örneklere uymak” şeklinde düzeltilerek bir nasihat halini almıştır. İslâm’ın temel görüşlerinden kaynaklanan ahlâkî endişelerle Yunan ve Roma sanatlarına pek ilgi göstermeyen müslümanlar, bunun için Poetika ’yı okudukları halde Aristo’nun estetiğinden ziyade Eflâtun ve Plotin’in güzellik ve sanat anlayışlarını kendilerine yakın bulmuşlardır.
Çok erken bir dönemde soyuta yönelen İslâm sanatının özellikle insan vücuduna bağlılığı kaçınılmaz olan heykeli gözden çıkarması tabii bir sonuçtur. Heykelden sonra dış gerçekle bağları en fazla olan sanat resimdir. Resmin pratik faydasının bulunması (meselâ tıp kitaplarında kullanılması) onun korunmasını gerektiriyordu. Ancak somuttan soyuta doğru bir gelişme çizgisi izleyen İslâm sanatı, başka kültürlerden devraldığı resmi de kendi prensipleri içinde yoğurarak büsbütün farklı bir ifade vasıtası haline getirmiştir. Böylece resim gitgide dekoratif mahiyet kazanarak küçülmüş, yazıya yardımcı bir unsur olmak üzere kitap sayfaları arasına sıkışmıştır. Buna karşılık yazı da (hat) kitap sayfalarından taşacak ve duvarlara asılarak kısmen resmin fonksiyonunu üstlenecektir. Nitekim hıristiyan kutsal şahsiyetleri kiliselerde resim ve heykelle temsil edilirken İslâm’ın uluları camilerde yazı levhalarıyla ifade edilmiştir.
Müslüman sanatkârların, canı olmadığı halde canlı gibi görünen figürler elde etmek gibi bir gayeleri olmadığı için nesneleri göründükleri gibi tasvir etmekten vazgeçince önlerinde büyük imkânlar açılmış, istedikleri renkleri ve biçimleri serbestçe seçerek metafizik düşüncelerini rahatlıkla ifade etme imkânına kavuşmuşlardır. İlk defa Gazzâlî’nin eserlerinde temellendirilen (İḥyâʾ , IV, 86; krş., III, 281; IV, 258) ve Allah’tan başka hiçbir varlığın kendiliğinde gerçekliği bulunmadığı inancına dayanan, zamanla vahdet-i vücûdda en ileri ontolojik ifadesini bulan anlayış, özellikle Muhyiddin İbnü’l-Arabî’nin tesiriyle İran ve Anadolu sahalarında hâkimiyet kazanmış ve müslümanların tecessüsünü gerçekliği inkâr edilen dış dünyadan koparmıştır. Bu görüşün yaygın olduğu coğrafyalarda müslüman sanatkârlar güzellik deyince mutlak güzelliğin görünen âlemdeki içkinliğini anlıyorlardı. Meselâ gülün güzelliği Allah’ın cemâl sıfatının ondaki görünüşüydü (tecellî). “Ben gizli bir hazine idim” diye başlayan kutsî hadis, sûfîlerin zihninde başlı başına bir estetik teorisi haline gelmiştir. Buna göre Allah’ın bilinmeyi istemesi aşktır; aşkla kendini beğenen Allah’ın güzelliği bütün güzellik türlerinin kaynağıdır. “Allah güzeldir ve güzeli sever” hadisini de bu çerçevede yorumlayan İbnü’l-Arabî’ye göre bütün aşkların temeli ve sebebi güzelliktir.
Klasik metinlerde dağınık olarak yer alan estetikle ilgili görüşler, İslâm dünyasında XIX. yüzyılın sonlarına kadar sistematik bir şekilde ifade edilmemiştir. Recâizâde Mahmud Ekrem, Osmanlı dünyasında güzellik meselesiyle estetik çerçevesinde ilgilenen ilk yazardır. Ta‘lîm-i Edebiyyât ’ın “Sanayide Güzellik Neden İbarettir?” başlıklı bölümünde güzel sanatların ve edebiyatın gayesinin “güzelliği istihsal ve izhar etmek” olduğunu belirttikten sonra güzellik kavramını, “Eflâtun’un tarifince hakikatin şa‘şaa-i letâfetinden ibaret olan güzellik tabiatta, efkârda, hissiyatta, ef‘alde olsun, hayret ve meftûniyetimizi celbeden ve kulûbümüzü şevk ü garâm ile meşhun eyleyen şeydir” diye tarif eder. Sakızlı Ohannes ise Türkçe’de estetikle ilgili olarak yayımlanmış ilk kitap olan Fünûn-ı Nefîse Târihi Medhali adlı kitabında Recâizâde’nin Ta‘lîm-i Edebiyyât ’ta kısaca temas ettiği bazı meseleleri geniş olarak ele almıştır. Rıza Tevfik de (Bölükbaşı) estetik meseleleriyle yakından ilgilenen ilk isimlerden biridir. 1909 yılında Bağçe mecmuasında “Hüsn ve Mâhiyeti” başlığı altında yayımladığı on beş makalede güzellik kavramını ve güzelliğin mahiyetini felsefî açıdan ele almıştır. Türkçe’de Bedîiyyât (1928) adıyla çıkan ilk kitap ise Ziyaeddin Fahri (Fındıkoğlu) imzasını taşımaktadır. İbrahim Alâeddin’in (Gövsa) Bediî Terbiye (1341/1922) adlı çalışması da Türkçe’de estetikle ilgili ilk kitaplardandır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Müsned , IV, 133, 134, 151.
Müslim, “Îmân”, 147.
İbn Mâce, “Duʿâʾ”, 10.
Fârâbî, el-Medînetü’l-fâżıla (nşr. Albert Nasrî Nâdir), Beyrut 1985, s. 40, 50-53.
İbn Sînâ, eş-Şifâʾ el-İlâhiyyât (1) , s. 27; a.e. (2) , s. 368-369.
a.mlf., en-Necât (nşr. M. Takī Dânişpejûh), Tahran 1364/1985, s. 590.
Gazzâlî, İḥyâʾ , III, 281; IV, 86, 258, 281, 293-361.
Fahreddin er-Râzî, Mefâtîḥu’l-ġayb , XIII, 117-118.
İbnü’l-Arabî, el-Fütûḥât , I, 169.
a.mlf., Fusûsu’l-hikem (trc. M. Nuri Gençosman), Ankara 1964, s. 339, 449.
Mevlânâ, Fîhi mâ fîh (trc. Abdülbâki Gölpınarlı), İstanbul 1959, s. 19.
a.mlf., Mesnevî , IV, 7.
Şevkânî, Fetḥu’l-ḳadîr , Beyrut 1412/1991, I, 146.
Recâizâde Mahmud Ekrem, Ta‘lîm-i Edebiyyât , İstanbul 1299, s. 59.
Rıfkı Melûl Meriç, Türk Tezyinî San’atları ve Son Üstadlardan Altısı , İstanbul 1937.
M. Brion, L’art abstrait , Paris 1956, s. 29-30.
L. Massignon, “İslâm Sanatlarının Felsefesi” (trc. Burhan Toprak, Din ve Sanat içinde), İstanbul 1962, s. 5-22.
W. Worringer, Soyutlama ve Einfühlung (trc. İsmail Tunalı), İstanbul 1971, s. 15-30.
Cemîl Salîbâ, el-Muʿcemü’l-felsefî, Beyrut 1982, I, 407-410.
O. Grabar, İslâm Sanatının Oluşumu (trc. Nuran Yavuz), İstanbul 1988.
Ali Ebû Mülhim, Fi’l-Cemâliyyât: Naḥve rüʾye cedîde ilâ felsefeti’l-fen , Beyrut 1411/1990, s. 5-8.
Beşir Ayvazoğlu, Aşk Estetiği , İstanbul 1993, s. 36-42, 53-71, 99-106, 115-133.
a.mlf., Geleneğin Direnişi , İstanbul 1996, s. 107-125.
Hüseyin Cahid [Yalçın], “Hikmet-i Bedâyie Dair, Hüsn”, SF , sy. 371 (1314), s. 103-106; sy. 387 (1314), s. 365.
sy. 388 (1314), s. 379-381.
Suut Kemal Yetkin, “İslâm Sanatının Mahiyeti”, AÜİFD , I (1952), s. 44-47.
Nurullah Berk, “İslâm Yazısında Plastik ve İfade”, a.e. , IV (1955), s. 49-52.
İ. Hakkı Baltacıoğlu, “Türk Sanat Gelenekleri”, AÜ İlâhiyat Fakültesi Yıllık Araştırmalar Dergisi , I, Ankara 1957, s. 1-23.
Mehmet Aydın, “İslâm’ın Estetik Görüşü”, KAM , XV/4 (1986), s. 9-24.
T. Burckhardt, “İslâm Sanatının Esasları” (trc. Hakkı Önkal), a.e. , XVIII/1 (1989), s. 46-63.
S. Kahwaji, “ʿIlm al-D̲j̲amāl”, EI2 (İng.) , III, 1134-1135.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2000 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 22. cildinde, 146-148 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.