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İSTÎLÂ Skip to content Mubah bir mala mâlik olma kastıyla el koyma anlamında fıkıh terimi.
Sözlükte “bir şeyi ele geçirmek, hâkimiyeti altına almak” mânasına gelen istîlâ , fıkıhta bu anlam çerçevesinde “bir malın haklı veya haksız şekilde ele geçirilmesi, kuvvet yoluyla devlet yönetimine el konulması” gibi anlamlarda kullanılır. Eşya hukuku alanında istîlâ, şahıs veya kamu mülkü olmayan mala mâlik olmak kastıyla el konulmasını ve bu şekilde mülkiyetinin kazanılması usulünü ifade eder. Sözlükte istîlâ ile yakın anlamları bulunan hiyâze , ihrâz , yed , vaz‘u’l-yed gibi tabirlerin de fıkhın değişik alanlardaki özel kullanımları yanında istîlâ ile eş anlamlı veya onu kısmen karşılayacak biçimde kullanıldığı görülür. Bununla birlikte çok belirgin olmasa da ihrâzın “menkul malların ele geçirilmesi” mânasında daha çok kullanıldığı, çağdaş literatürde de tercih edilen istîlâ teriminin ihrâza göre daha kapsamlı olduğu, hiyâze kelimesinde ise zilyedlik anlamının ağır bastığı söylenebilir. İstîlâda sözlük anlamından da mülhem olarak güç kullanımına dayalı ilk işgal, ihrâzda ise belli bir emek ve usulle sahipsiz malın tasarruf ve koruma altına alınması mânası daha güçlüdür. Bu sebeple bazı kaynaklar mubah malın mülkiyetinin kazanılmasında istîlâyı birinci, ihrâzı da ikinci safha olarak gördüğünden iki terimi birlikte kullanırlar.
Terminoloji tartışması veya aynı kelimenin farklı muhitlerde farklı anlamlar içermesi, diğer birçok alan gibi mülkiyet hukuku alanında da fıkıh doktrininin fer‘î meselelerin çözümü ve bunlarda izlenen usülden hareketle tümevarımcı bir metotla oluşması, farklı dönem ve bölgelerin uygulamalarına ileri dönemlerde ortak bir açıklama getirmenin zorlamasıyla da alâkalı bir husustur. Nitekim klasik dönem İslâm hukukçuları genel literatürün ihyâü’l-mevât, maden, av (sayd, ıstıyâd), gasp, satım (bey‘), siyer ve ganimet gibi bölüm veya başlıklar altında veya emvâl ve harâc literatüründe ilgili fer‘î meselelerin çözümü vesilesiyle mülkiyet hukuku ve sahipsiz malın mülkiyet altına alınması konusuna temas etmişler ve kaçınılmaz olarak tasnif ve adlandırma da dahil farklı yaklaşımlara sahip olmuşlardır. Öte yandan mülkiyet, özellikle de mubah mal ve bunun sahiplenilmesi konusundaki telakkilerin insan ve tabii çevre faktörüne de bağlı olarak belli bir evrim geçirdiği, fakihlerin bu konuya ilişkin görüşlerinin bu gelişim sürecinden bağımsız olmadığı açıktır. Modern dönemde bu alanda yapılan doktriner çalışmalar, teorik tesbit ve tasnifler de bu zengin verilerin ürünüdür.
İslâm hukukunda mülkiyet sebepleri mubah malı istîlâ, mülkiyet nakledici akidler ve halefiyet şeklinde üç ana başlık altında toplanabilir (Mecelle , md. 1248). Satım, hibe gibi akidler ikinci, miras ve vasiyet de üçüncü sebebin örnekleridir. Bu sebepleri mülkiyetin cebrî intikali demek olan şüf‘ayı da ekleyerek dörde çıkaranlara, sadece emek ve ilk işgal şeklinde ikiye indirenlere rastlandığı gibi çok farklı başka tasniflere de rastlanır (bk. MÜLKİYET ). Bu tasniflerde istîlâ, sahipsiz bir malın ilkten mülkiyetinin kazanılmasını ifade ettiğinden diğer sebepler arasında âdeta aslî sebep konumundadır (İbn Nüceym, V, 278). Hakkın niteliği ve aidiyeti açısından malların özel mal, hazine malı, kamu malı, vakıf malı ve mubah mal şeklinde beşli ayırımında mubah mal, bir malın mülkiyet altına girmeden önceki aslî durumunu ifade eder. Bu sebeple malın mubah ve memlûk şeklindeki iki ana gruba ayırımı da yanlış olmaz. Literatürde bazan mubah mal teriminin, kamunun ya da belli bir bölge halkının yararlanılmasına tahsis edilen (metrûk), fakat mülkiyete geçirilmesi câiz görülmeyen kamu mallarını da kuşatacak bir anlam genişliğinde kullanıldığı görülmekle birlikte (Mecelle , md.1234-1261) bu ayırımdaki teknik anlamıyla mubah mal üzerinde mülkiyet hakkı kurulmamış, elde edilmesi ve mülkiyete geçirilmesi mümkün ve câiz malları ifade eder. Av hayvanları, kaynak ve yağmur suları, sahipsiz yerde kendiliğinden biten otlar, meyve ve ağaçlar menkul mubah malın, mevât arazi de gayri menkul mubah malın en bilinen örnekleridir. İstîlâ da bu tür malların mülkiyete alınmasını, dolayısıyla diğer gruplardan birine aktarılması sürecinin başlangıcını ifade eder. Doktrinde, ayn üzerindeki mülkiyet hakkının kural olarak ıskata değil mülkiyet nakledici bir işleme konu olabileceği belirtilerek sahibi tarafından terkedilen malın istîlâya değil âriyet yoluyla intifâya konu olabileceği ya da bu terkin malı almak isteyene temlik anlamı taşıyacağı ifade edilir. Zeydiyye mezhebinin yanı sıra bazı Hanefî, Mâlikî ve Şâfiî fakihlerinin de sebep ayırımı yapmaksızın mülkiyeti ya da sadece ihya gibi fiilî sebeple kazanılan mülkiyeti ıskata ve dolaylı olarak istîlâya elverişli görmesi, çoğunluğun görüşünün mülkiyet ihtilâflarını ve gasbı önlemeye mâtuf bir tedbir niteliğinde olduğunu gösterir.
Hz. Peygamber’in sahipsiz mallara atfen, daha önce kimse tarafından ele geçirilmemiş malların ilk ele geçirene ait olacağı (Ebû Dâvûd, “İmâre”, 36), insanların su, ot ve ateşte (bazı rivayetlerde tuz da zikredilir) ortak olduğu, satılmaması ve bunlardan kimsenin engellenmemesi gerektiği (İbn Mâce, “Rühûn” 16, 18; Ebû Dâvûd, “Büyûʿ”, 60, 61; Ebû Ubeyd Kāsım b. Sellâm, s. 372-381; Şevkânî, V, 343-345) yönündeki hadisleriyle mevât arazinin ihyası, maden ve definelerin zekâtına ilişkin hadisler, ilk dönem İslâm toplumunda iktisadî kalkınma alanında önemli rol oynamıştır. Özellikle İslâm öncesi dönemlerde mülkiyetin en tabii ve aslî kazanım yolu olan istîlâ, İslâmî devirde de imar ve iskân faaliyetlerini hızlandırıcı bir teşvik unsuru olarak uzunca bir süre önemini korudu. Ancak ileri dönemlerde özel mülkiyet altında olmayan malların kamu ve hazine (devlet) malı kavramlarına dahil edilmesine, nüfus ve imar hareketlerine bağlı olarak istîlâ gayri menkullerde ve ona tâbi mallarda giderek önemini yitirmiş ve belli alanla sınırlı kalmıştır. Klasik fıkıh doktrininde Hz. Peygamber ve Hulefâ-yi Râşidîn döneminin konuyla ilgili uygulamalarındaki ana çizgi korunmakla birlikte hem içinde bulunulan yeni şartların gereği bazı ayrıntılara girilmiş hem de kara ve deniz avcılığı, maden ve define iktisabı ile mevât arazinin işlenmesi konuları sahipsiz mal iktisabının, yani istîlânın birer türü olduğu halde özel terimlerle ifade edilip her biri bazı özel şartlar taşıması sebebiyle literatürde ayrı başlıklar altında ele alınmıştır. Mubah mallar arasında sayılan su, ot, odun, kerpiçlik toprak gibi malların ibtidâen el koyma ile mülkiyete geçirilmesi de istîlânın en eski türlerinden biri olup nisbeten daha sade kurallara bağlanmıştır (bk. İHRÂZ ). Çağdaş İslâm hukukçularının istîlâyı avlanma, mevât arazinin ihyası, maden ve definelerin iktisabı, su, ot, odun gibi menkul mubah malların ihrâzı şeklinde dört grupta ele alarak incelemesi de bu gelişmelerin sonucudur.
Esasen mubah mala el koymada devlet de dahil olmak üzere bütün gerçek ve tüzel kişiler fırsat eşitliğine sahip olup bu tür mal üzerindeki yetki ortaklığına “şirket-i ibâha” adı verilir (Mecelle , md. 1045). Bu anlayış, yeryüzünün ve üzerinde bulunanların yararlanması için insanoğlunun emrine verildiği şeklindeki genel dinî anlayışla da örtüşür. Hukukî mahiyeti itibariyle istîlâ fiilî, iradî ve hak doğurucu bir işlem niteliğindedir. Mubah maldan hangi usullerle faydalanılabileceği konusunda doktrin ve uygulamada getirilen kurallar da bu hakkı kısıtlamaya değil bu mal üzerinde başkalarına ait diğer hakları korumaya ve hak kullanımında düzeni sağlamaya yönelik tedbirlerdir. Mubah mal ilâve özellikler taşıdıkça bazı ilâve şartlar ileri sürülür. Meselâ şahıs veya kamunun hakkı taalluk etmeyen su, bitki, meyve, odun, ateş, av hayvanı gibi aslen mubah malların elde edilmesinde bunlar üzerinde fiilî hâkimiyetin kurulması yeterli görülürken, hatta hakiki ihrâzda niyet ve kasıt şartı da aranmazken mevât arazinin ihyasında tahcîr ve devlet başkanının izni gibi şartlar ileri sürülmesi, imar ve iskân faaliyetlerine bağlı olarak gayri menkul mülkiyetinin çok daha önemli hale gelmiş olmasından kaynaklanır.
İstîlâya konu mal üzerinde kimsenin öncelik hakkının bulunmaması şartı istîlâyı gasptan ayırır. Bu bağlamda dârülharpte savaş sonrası müslümanların eline geçen harbîlere ait malların veya müslümanların düşman tarafından ele geçirilen mallarının hukukî statüsü ve istîlâ-mülkiyet ilişkisi tartışması gündeme gelir. Savaşta düşmanı öldüren kimsenin onun üzerindeki eşyaya (seleb) mâlik olacağına ilişkin hadis (Buhârî, “Ḫumus”, 18; Müslim, “Cihâd”, 42; Ebû Dâvûd, “Cihâd”, 136), mubah menkul malın mülkiyetinin ihrâzla kazanılmasının özel bir uygulaması niteliğindedir. Ancak bu açıklamayı, mevât arazinin ihyasında olduğu gibi Hz. Peygamber’in yönetici ya da ordu kumandanı sıfatıyla yaptığı bir teşvik niteliğinde kabul edenler, bunu mutlak izin saymayıp her savaşta ordu kumandanının özel karar ve iznini gerekli görmüşlerdir (Karâfî, s. 105-108). Bir görüşünde İmam Şâfiî ve bir grup fakih, düşmandan elde edilen menkul malların mülkiyetinin mücerret istîlâ ile, çoğunluk ise taksimle kazanılacağı görüşündedir. Ancak dârülharpte yapılan taksimi taşıma amaçlı geçici taksim (kısmet-i haml) olarak gören ve malı düşmanın mülkiyetinden tamamen çıkmış saymayan Hanefîler, mülkiyetinin kazanılabilmesi için dârülislâmda yapılacak taksim (kısmet-i mülk) sonrası ihrâzı gerekli görürler. İleri sürülen şartlarda ayrılsalar da fakihlerin düşmana ait malları hukuken koruma altında olmaması sebebiyle hükmen mubah mal saydıkları anlaşılmaktadır. Düşmandan ele geçirilen topraklar menkul mallara nisbetle oldukça farklı bir statüde ele alınır; bu alanda devletin müdahale hakkı daha belirgindir (bk. FEY ; GANİMET ). Ancak bu toprakların özel mülkiyete intikali söz konusu olduğu durumlarda istîlâ tek başına ya da taksim, İslâm ülkesine eklenme, ihya gibi şartlar ilâvesiyle mülkiyet kazandırıcı bir işlem niteliğinde görülür.
Savaşta müslümanlara ait malın düşman tarafından ele geçirilmesini İmam Şâfiî ve bazı hukukçular gasp hükmünde gördüklerinden malın geri alınması halinde eski sahibine intikaline de imkân vermek için böyle bir istîlânın hukukî sonuç doğurmayacağı görüşündedir. Bir rivayette Ahmed b. Hanbel mücerret istîlâyı mülkiyetin geçişi için yeterli sayarken Hanefîler başta olmak üzere fakihlerin çoğunluğu, bunun için malın dârülharbe götürülerek düşman tarafından ihraz edilmiş olması şartını arar. Çoğunluk, ilkeden hareket ederek malın üzerinden gerek sahibinin gerekse devletin hâkimiyetinin kalkması ile onu mubah mal hükmünde görmekte ve bu konuda müslüman-gayri müslim ayırımı yapmamaktadır. Bu malın düşmandan geri alınması durumunda ise eski sahibinin hakları farklı usullerle de olsa korunmaya çalışılmıştır.
Fıkıh literatüründe istîlâ, sözlük anlamı çerçevesinde kalan bir diğer kullanımla devlet başkanlığının zorla ele geçirilmesini ifade eder. Fakihlerin genel tavrı, zorla iş başına gelen ve halkın da kendisine itaat etmesini sağlayan kimsenin halifede aranan şartları taşıdığı, dinin ahkâmını açıkça çiğnemediği sürece meşrû halife kabul edilmesi yönünde olup bu konuda icmâ iddiası bile vardır. Bu görüş, bir yönden fakihlerin, toplumu fitne ve iç savaşa sürüklememek ve mevcut şartlar içinde iyileştirme imkânını araştırmak maksadıyla fiilî durumu kabullenmeleri şeklinde yorumlanabilirse de istîlâ ile ilgili olarak devletlerarası hukukta geliştirilen ve fiilî hâkimiyet boşluğunu esas alan bakış açısıyla da yakından ilgili görünmektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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Müslim, “Cihâd”, 42.
İbn Mâce, “Rühûn”, 16, 18.
Ebû Dâvûd, “Büyûʿ”, 60, 61, “Cihâd”, 136, “İmâre”, 36.
Ebû Ubeyd Kāsım b. Sellâm, el-Emvâl (nşr. M. Halîl Herrâs), Kahire 1401/1981, s. 372-381.
Mâverdî, el-Aḥkâmü’s-sulṭâniyye , s. 173-178.
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Kâsânî, Bedâʾiʿ , VI, 188-192; VII, 118-124.
Karâfî, el-İḥkâm (nşr. Abdülfettâh Ebû Gudde), Halep 1387/1967, s. 105-108.
İbn Nüceym, el-Baḥrü’r-râʾiḳ , V, 278.
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Şevkânî, Neylü’l-evṭâr , V, 343-345.
Mecelle , md. 1045, 1234-1261.
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M. Sellâm Medkûr, el-İbâḥa ʿinde’l-uṣûliyyîn ve’l-fuḳahâʾ , Beyrut 1984, s. 113-114.
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Abdullah Muhtâr Yûnus, el-Milkiyye fi’ş-şerîʿati’l-İslâmiyye ve devrühâ fi’l-iḳtiṣâdi’l-İslâmî , İskenderiyye 1407/1987, s. 177-180.
Muhammed Yûsuf Mûsâ, el-Emvâl ve naẓariyyetü’l-ʿaḳd fi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî , [baskı yeri yok] 1987 (Dârü’l-fikri’l-Arabî), s. 185-200.
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Fâzıl M. Cevâd es-Sehlânî, el-Yed fi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî sebeben li’l-milkiyye ve delîlen ʿaleyhâ , Beyrut 1410/1990, s. 59-61, 79-82, 98-104.
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“İḥtitâb”, Mv.Fİ , III, 190-193.
“İstîlâ”, a.e. , VIII, 207-214.
“İstîlâ”, Mv.F , IV, 157-163.
“Ḥıyâze”, a.e. , XVIII, 274-290.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2001 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 23. cildinde, 359-361 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.