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İSTİŞHÂD Skip to content Dil bilgisi kurallarını, kelimelerin yapı ve anlamlarını kanıtlamak üzere doğruluğu kesin olan misaller getirmek anlamında edebiyat terimi.
Sözlükte “şahit getirmek, şahit göstermek” mânasına gelen istişhâd lugat, sarf, nahiv ve belâgat ilimlerinde “bir kelimenin veya bir ifadenin lafız, anlam ve kullanım doğruluğunu kanıtlamak amacıyla doğruluğu kesin olan nazım ve nesirden örnek vermek” anlamında kullanılır. Bunun için getirilen örneğe şâhid (çoğulu şevâhid ) denir. Bazı kaynaklarda istişhâd yerine ihticâc ve istidlâl terimleri de kullanılmıştır. Misalle şâhid arasında fark vardır. Şâhid bir dil bilgisi kuralının, bir ifadenin doğruluğunu kanıtlar; misal ise kuralı açıklamak ve anlaşılmasını kolaylaştırmak için getirilir (Teftâzânî, s. 10).
İstişhâd ihtiyacı, fetihler sonucunda Araplar’ın Arap olmayan unsurlarla karışarak dillerinin bozulması tehlikesi karşısında ortaya çıkmıştır. İstişhâd edilen metinler şiir ve şiir dışı sözler olmak üzere ikiye ayrılır. Arap edebiyatında şairler istişhâd açısından Câhiliye dönemi şairleri, muhadram şairler, İslâm’ın ilk döneminde yetişen şairler (mütekaddimûn) ve yeni şairler (müvelledûn, muhdesûn) olmak üzere dört gruba ayrılır. Edebî ilimlerden lugat, sarf ve nahivde ilk üç gruba dahil olan şairlerin şiirleriyle istişhâd edilir ve en son 150 (767) yılına kadar devam eden bu devirlere “ihticâc (istişhâd) asrı” adı verilir. Şiirleriyle istişhâdın câiz görüldüğü en son şair İbrâhim b. Herme’dir (ö. 150/767). Ebû Amr b. Alâ gibi bazı dilciler, kendi dönemlerinde yaşayan birçok şairi yeni kabul ederek şiirleriyle istişhâd etmemişlerdir. Bununla birlikte müvelledûn içerisinde güvenilir ve sağlam olanların, özellikle dil âlimlerinin sözleriyle istişhâdı câiz görenler olmuştur. Nitekim Sîbeveyhi ile Ahfeş el-Evsat yeni şairlerin ilki olan Beşşâr b. Bürd’ün, Zemahşerî de Ebû Temmâm’ın şiiriyle istişhâd etmiştir. Belâgat ilimleri olan meânî, beyân ve bedî‘de ilk üç tabakaya ait şairlerin şiirlerinin yanında müvelledûnun, hatta Arap olmayan şairlerin şiirleriyle de istişhâd câiz görülmüştür.
Kur’an en fasih ve en beliğ söz kabul edildiğinden onun mütevâtir, şâz ve âhâd kıraatleriyle istişhâd edilmiştir (İbn Cinnî, I, 32). Hadislerle istişhâdın câiz olup olmadığı hususu tartışmalıdır. İbn Harûf en-Nahvî, İbn Mâlik et-Tâî ve Radî el-Esterâbâdî eserlerinde hadislerle istişhâd etmişlerdir. Hatta Radî, sahâbe ve Ehl-i beyt sözleriyle de istişhâd edilebileceği görüşündedir. Başta İbnü’z-Zâiğ ve Ebû Hayyân el-Endelüsî olmak üzere birçok dilci, hadislerin Hz. Peygamber’den sadece anlamları ile rivayet edildiğini söyleyerek bu metinlerle istişhâdı câiz görmemişlerdir. Basra ve Kûfe dil mekteplerine mensup eski dilciler de hadisle istişhâd etmemişlerdir. Öte yandan eski dilcilerin hadislerle istişhâd etmemesinin onlarla istişhâdın câiz olmamasını gerektirmediği de ileri sürülmüştür. Kısa hadislerle Resûl-i Ekrem’in fesahatini ortaya koyan hadislerin, özlü sözlerinin (cevâmiu’l-kelim) ve darbımesellerinin hem lafız hem anlamca ona ait olduğu, birkaç rivayeti bulunan hadislerle uzun hadislerin ise anlamlarının nakledilmiş olabileceği görüşü daha mâkul kabul edilmiştir.
Bütün Arap lehçeleriyle istişhâd sahih olmakla birlikte Kureyş, Kays Aylân, Temîm, Esed, Hüzeyl, bazı Kinâne kabileleriyle Tay kabilelerinin lehçeleri daha muteberdir. Yunanlılar’a komşu olan Tağlib, İran’a komşu olan Bekir b. Vâil gibi Arap olmayan unsurlarla sınır komşusu kabilelerin lehçelerinden istişhâd ise uygun görülmemiştir. Hem çölde hem şehirde yaşayan kabilelerin lehçeleri de istişhâd açısından makbul sayılmamıştır.
Dürüstlük şartı istişhâdda kendisinden rivayette bulunulan kimsede değil râvide aranmış, müslüman olmayanların, çocukların, kadınların ve delilerin sözleriyle de istişhâd edilmiştir (Süyûtî, el-Müzhir , I, 138-144). Uydurma olması veya bir müvelled şaire ya da sözüne güvenilmeyen birine ait bulunması ihtimalinden dolayı söyleyeni bilinmeyen nazım ve nesirle istişhâd câiz görülmemiştir. Lehçelerin birbiriyle karışması istişhâda engel değildir. İki ve daha fazla rivayeti olan şâhidle vezin ya da kafiye zoru ile yapılmış değişikliklerle de istişhâd câizdir. İ‘rabı ve anlamı kesin olmayan, ihtimal taşıyan şâhid geçersizdir. Bu ilkeler hem Arap gramerinde hem de Arap sözlüğünde uygulanır.
Arap diline ait sözlük çalışmalarında kadim Arap şiirinin şâhid olarak kullanıldığı ilk örnekler, lugat açıklamalarının ağırlığı ve yoğunluğu sebebiyle “lugavî tefsir” adı verilen garîbü’l-Kur’ân, meâni’l-Kur’ân, mecâzü’l-Kur’ân türü eserlerde görülür. Hâricîler’in reisi Nâfi‘ b. Ezrak’ın, Kur’an’da geçen 200 kadar garîb kelimenin anlamına dair sorduğu sorulara Abdullah b. Abbas’ın kadim Arap şiirinden getirdiği şâhidlerle açıklamalarda bulunduğu Mesâʾilü Nâfiʿ b. Ezraḳ adlı risâlesi (nşr. Âişe Abdurrahman, Kahire 1971) bu konuda bilinen en eski çalışmalardandır. İbn Abbas’ın Ġarîbü’l-Ḳurʾân (Âtıf Efendi Ktp., nr. 2815/8, vr. 102a -107a ) ve Luġātü’l-Ḳurʾân (nşr. Selâhaddin el-Müneccid, Kahire 1946) isimli risâlelerinde de aynı şekilde lugavî açıklamalarda şevâhide yer verildiği görülür. Ferrâ ile Ahfeş el-Evsat’ın Meʿâni’l-Ḳurʾân ’larında ve özellikle Ebû Ubeyde’nin Mecâzü’l-Ḳurʾân ’ında lugavî izahlarda Arap şiiri yoğun biçimde şâhid olarak kullanılmıştır.
Arap sözlükçülüğünde ortaya konan bu dolaylı çalışmaların dışında “kitâbü’l-hayl, kitâbü’l-ibil, kitâbü halkı’l-insân” gibi doğrudan Arap lugatçılığına dair kaleme alınmış monografik risâlelerle bunlardan sonra veya aynı zamanda telif edilmiş olan Arap dilinin ilk tam sözlüğü Kitâbü’l-ʿAyn ’da (Halîl b. Ahmed) yoğun biçimde kadim Arap şiiri, Kur’an âyetleri, Arap atasözleri ve kısmen de hadisler kelimelerin gerek morfolojik yapı gerekse anlamlarıyla ilgili şevâhid olarak kullanılmıştır. Daha sonra yazılan İbn Düreyd’in Cemheretü’l-luġa ’sı, Fârâbî’nin Dîvânü’l-edeb ’i, Ezherî’nin Tehẕîbü’l-luġa ’sı, Cevherî’nin eṣ-Ṣıḥâḥ ’ı, İbn Fâris’in Mücmelü’l-luġa ’sı ile Meḳāyîsü’l-luġa ’sı, İbn Sîde’nin el-Muḥkem ve el-Muḫaṣṣaṣ adlı sözlükleri, İbn Manzûr’un Lisânü’l-ʿArab ’ı ve Zebîdî’nin Tâcü’l-luġa ’sı gibi hacimli sözlüklerde geniş ölçüde şevâhide yer verilmiştir. Bu hacimli sözlükler üzerinde kullanım kolaylığı sağlamak amacıyla yapılan ihtisar çalışmalarında ilk ayıklananlar şevâhid olmuştur. Ebû Bekir Muhammed er-Râzî’nin Muḫtârü’ṣ-Ṣıḥâḥ ’ı, Zebîdî’nin Muḫtaṣarü’l-ʿAyn ’ı, Fîrûzâbâdî’nin el-Ḳāmûsü’l-muḥîṭ ’i bu tür sözlüklerin başında yer alır. Bundan sonra telif edilen sözlüklerde ise şevâhide ya hiç yer verilmemiş ya da bu yönteme nâdiren başvurulmuştur. Kahire Arap Dil Akademisi’nin yayımladığı el-Muʿcemü’l-kebîr ’de eski sözlük geleneğine uygun olarak belli ölçüde şevâhide yer verildiği görülmektedir.
Türkçe sözlüklerden Hüseyin Kâzım Kadri’nin Türk Lugatı (I-II, İstanbul 1927-1928; III-IV, İstanbul 1943-1945), Türkiye Türkçesi ile diğer Türk lehçelerinden şevâhidin yanında Arapça ve Farsça örneklere de yer veren bir eser olarak dikkati çekmektedir. Bunun yanında Mustafa Nihat Özön’ün Osmanlıca Türkçe Sözlük ’ü ile (İstanbul 1952) Meydan Larousse-Büyük Lûgat ve Ansiklopedi (I-XII, İstanbul 1969-1973), istişhâdı sözlük alanında uygulayan eserlerdendir. Türk Dil Kurumu’nun yayımladığı Tarama Sözlüğü de (I-VI, Ankara 1963-1972) bu alanda önemli bir çalışma sayılır.
Bazı gramer ve belâgat kitaplarında örnek olarak zikredilen şiirlerin açıklanmasına dair birçok şevâhid şerhi kaleme alınmış (EI2 [İng.] , IX, 371-372), şiir şevâhidini belli bir düzene göre toplayan indeks ve koleksiyonlar tertip edilmiştir. August Fischer – Erich Bräunlich’in Schawāhid-Indices ’i (Leipzig-Vienna 1934-1935), Abdüsselâm Muhammed Hârûn’un Muʿcemü şevâhidi’l-ʿArabiyye ’si (Kahire 1972) ve Ahmed Neffâh’ın Fihrisü şevâhidi Sîbeveyhi ’si (Beyrut 1970) bunlar arasında yer alır. İstişhâd meselesini inceleyen çalışmalar içinde şunlar sayılabilir: Süleyman b. İbrâhim el-Matrûdî, el-İstişhâd bi’l-ḥadîs̱i’n-nebeviyyi ve’l-es̱eri ʿale’l-mesâʾili’n-naḥviyye ve’ṣ-ṣarfiyye (yüksek lisans tezi, 1403, Câmiatü’l-İmâm Muhammed b. Suûd el-İslâmiyye [Riyad]); Sabâh Abdullah Bâ Fazl, el-İstişhâd bi’ş-şiʿri’l-ʿArabî ʿinde Sîbeveyhi (yüksek lisans tezi, 1403, er-Riâsetü’l-âmme li-ta‘lîmi’l-benât [Cidde]); Muhammed el-Bâtil Müceydil el-Harbî, eş-Şâhidü’ş-şiʿru fi’n-naḥvi’l-ʿArabî (doktora tezi, 1407, Câmiatü’l-Melik Suûd [Riyad]); M. Reşit Özbalıkçı, Arap Gramerinde Kur’an ve Hadisle İstişhad (doktora tezi, 1985, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Tehânevî, Keşşâf , II, 738.
İbn Kuteybe, eş-Şiʿr ve’ş-şuʿarâʾ , I, 63.
İbn Cinnî, el-Muḥteseb , Kahire 1386/1966, I, 32.
İbn Reşîḳ el-Kayrevânî, el-ʿUmde (nşr. Muhammed Karkazân), Beyrut 1408/1988, I, 196-198.
Zemahşerî, el-Keşşâf (Kahire) , I, 220-221.
Teftâzânî, el-Muṭavvel ʿale’t-Telḫîṣ , İstanbul 1286, s. 10.
Süyûtî, el-Müzhir fî ʿulûmi’l-luġa ve envâʿihâ (nşr. M. Ahmed Câdelmevlâ v.dğr.), Kahire, ts. (Dâru ihyâi’l-kütübi’l-Arabiyye), I, 138-144.
a.mlf., el-İḳtirâḥ (nşr. Ahmed Suphi Furat), İstanbul 1395/1975, s. 6, 20-41.
Abdülkādir el-Bağdâdî, Ḫizânetü’l-edeb , I, 5-18.
Nihad M. Çetin, Eski Arap Şiiri , İstanbul 1973, s. 6-8.
Ali Necdî Nâsıf, “en-Nüḥât ve’l-istişhâd bi’l-ḥadîs̱i’ş-şerîf”, Mecelletü’l-baḥs̱i’l-ʿilmî ve’t-türâs̱i’l-İslâmî , III, Mekke 1400/1980, s. 159-164.
M. Reşit Özbalıkçı, “Arap Dilinde İlk İstişhad”, DÜİFD , sy. 5 (1989), s. 369-383.
Hüseyin Tural, “Arap Dilinde Şiir ve Hadisle İstişhad Meselesi”, EAÜİFD , sy. 9 (1990), s. 67-79.
Ali Eroğlu, “Şiirle İstişhad ve İstişhad Açısından Medârik”, a.e. , sy. 11 (1993), s. 326-358.
Cl. Gilliot, “S̲h̲awāhid”, EI2 (İng.) , IX, 370-372.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2001 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 23. cildinde, 396-397 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.