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İSVİÇRE Skip to content Orta Avrupa’da ülke.
Bölümler İçin Önizleme
Madde Planı
1/2 Müellif: TALİP KÜÇÜKCAN Bölüme Git
Avrupa’nın orta kesiminde yer alan, sınırları her taraftan karayla çevrili, Fransa, İtalya, Almanya, Avusturya ve Liechtenstein Prensliği’yle sınırdaş…
2/2 Müellif: FAHRİ KAYADİBİ Bölüme Git
III. ÜLKEDE İSLÂMİYET ve İSLÂM ARAŞTIRMALARI Müslümanların İsviçre ile ilk temasları, X. yüzyılda Endülüs Hükümdarı III. Abdurrahman zamanında meydana…
I. FİZİKÎ ve BEŞERÎ COĞRAFYA
II. TARİH
III. ÜLKEDE İSLÂMİYET ve İSLÂM ARAŞTIRMALARI
Avrupa’nın orta kesiminde yer alan, sınırları her taraftan karayla çevrili, Fransa, İtalya, Almanya, Avusturya ve Liechtenstein Prensliği’yle sınırdaş, yirmi kantonla altı yarıkantondan oluşan ve Avrupa’nın en küçük ülkelerinden biri olan İsviçre Konfederasyonu’nun yüzölçümü 41.284 km2 , nüfusu 7.118.000’dir (1998). Demokrasiyle yönetilir; başşehri 127.469 nüfuslu (1998) Bern, diğer önemli şehirleri Zürih (Zürich) (343.869), Basel (Basle) (174.000), Cenevre (173.559) ve Lozan’dır (Lausanne) (115.878).
I. FİZİKÎ ve BEŞERÎ COĞRAFYA İsviçre düzlükleri az, dağlık bir ülkedir. Doğal yapı özellikleri itibariyle İsviçre, İsviçre platosu (Mittelland), Alpler ve Jura (İsviçre tepeleri) olmak üzere üç coğrafî bölgeye ayrılır. Ülke yüzölçümünün yaklaşık % 10’unu engebeli tepe ve dağlardan oluşan Jura bölgesi, yaklaşık % 60’ını Alpler oluşturur. Bu dağlar en yüksek noktasına aynı zamanda ülkenin de en yüksek doruk noktası olan Dufourspitze’de (4634 m.) ulaşır. Alpler bir taraftan dağ sporları (turizm), diğer taraftan buzul erimesiyle oluşan akarsulardan hidroelektrik enerjisi üretimiyle ülkenin ekonomik hayatına katkıda bulunur. İsviçre çok sayıda gölle kaplıdır, bunların en büyükleri Cenevre (Lèman) ve Constance (Bodensee) gölleridir. Ülke nüfusunun üçte ikisinden fazlasının yaşadığı Mittelland bölgesi verimli topraklarıyla İsviçre’nin tarım bölgesi haline gelmiş ve birçok yolun kesişme noktasında bulunması sebebiyle de bir ticaret ve sanayi bölgesi olarak gelişmiştir. Zürih, Bern, Cenevre ve Lozan gibi önemli şehirler bu bölgededir.
Yüzölçümü küçük olmasına rağmen İsviçre’de şaşırtıcı derecede farklı iklim özellikleri görülür. Avrupa’ya özgü bütün iklim kuşakları İsviçre dağlarında buluştuğundan batıda körfez akımının etkisindeki Atlantik iklimi, doğuda kara iklimi, güneyde Akdeniz iklimi, kuzeyde ise Orta Avrupa’nın geçiş iklimi hâkimdir. Ülkedeki yağış miktarı genelde yükseklikle doğru orantılı olarak artış gösterir. Ülkedeki nüfus yoğunluğu 169,4’tür.
Etnik bakımdan İsviçre nüfusunun % 65’ini Alman, % 18’ini Fransız, % 10’unu İtalyan, % 1’ini Romanş kökenliler oluşturmaktadır. Geri kalan % 6’lık kesim farklı etnik kökenlere mensuptur. Etnik dağılıma paralel olarak İsviçre dört ayrı dil bölgesine ayrılır. Almanca, Fransızca, İtalyanca ve Romanş lehçesi resmî dillerdir. Ülkede sayıları 1,2 milyonu (1993) aşan göçmenlerin genel nüfus içindeki oranı % 16’yı aşmış bulunmaktadır. İsviçre’deki Türkler’in sayısı 80.000 (1995) civarındadır. İsviçre’de dil ve etnik ayrılıklar gibi dinî ayrılık da vardır. Nüfusun % 47,6’sı Katolik, % 44,3’ü Protestan ve geri kalan % 8,1’i de (1990) diğer dinlere mensuptur. İsviçre’deki müslümanların sayısı 200.000’i (2000) geçmiş olup genel nüfusun % 2,5’inin biraz üstündedir.
İsviçre’de ekilebilir alanlar ve ham madde kıtlığı, kömür ve petrol gibi doğal kaynakların yokluğu ekonominin büyük ölçüde tarımsal uğraştan çok sanayi ve ticarete dayanmasına yol açmıştır. Uluslararası ticaret yollarının kesişim noktasında bulunması, siyasal istikrarı ve gizliliği, koruyucu yasaları sayesinde önemli bir finans ülkesi haline gelmiştir.
II. TARİH 1291 yılında doğan İsviçre Konfederasyonu’nun kökenleri milâttan önce I. yüzyıla kadar uzanır. Arkeolojik kazılar tarımla uğraşan köylüler, avcılar, balıkçılar ve silâhlı savaşçıların Hıristiyanlık öncesinde bölgede dağınık ve geçici yerleşimlerini göstermektedir. I. yüzyıldan başlayarak gelen Keltler’in istilâsına uğrayan bölge milâttan sonra I. yüzyılda Romalılar’ın kontrolüne girmiştir. V ve VI. yüzyıllardaki Germen, Ostrogot ve Franklar’ın istilâsına sahne olan İsviçre’nin kültürel kimliği bu istilâlarla belirginlik kazanmaya başlamıştır. Saint Columbanus ve Saint Gall gibi misyonerler, VI. yüzyıldan itibaren bölgeyi hıristiyanlaştırmak amacıyla piskoposluk merkezleri ve manastırlar kurmuşlardır. 843’e kadar Franklar’ın hâkimiyetinde kalan bölge bu tarihte bölünerek Lothair ve II. Ludwig arasında paylaştırıldı. Macar ve müslüman akıncıların X. yüzyıldaki başarısız akınlarına uğrayan bölge, 1033’te bütünüyle Kutsal Roma-Germen İmparatoru II. Konrad’ın hâkimiyetine girdi. Ancak imparatorluğun bu yüzyıldan itibaren gücünü gitgide yitirmesi üzerine ülke kontlar arasında bölündü ve feodal devletler ortaya çıktı. Feodal devletlerin ilk ve en güçlülerinden biri olan Zähringen Devleti’nin 1218’de yıkılmasından sonra bölge toprakları Kyburg, Savoie ve Habsburg hânedanlarının kontrolüne girdi. Habsburglar bütün Orta ve Batı İsviçre’nin denetimini ellerine geçirdi. 1291’de İmparator Rudolf’un ölmesi üzerine Schwyz, Uri ve Unterwalden’den oluşan üç orman kantonu ortak savunma amacıyla süresiz anlaşma yaparak (1 Ağustos 1291) bugünkü İsviçre Konfederasyonu’nun temelini attı. Luzern (1332), Zürih (1351), Glarus ve Zug (1353) kantonlarının da birliğe katılmasından sonra Habsburglar 1389’da konfederasyonun bağımsızlığını kabul etti. 1513’e gelindiğinde üye kanton sayısı on üçe ulaşan konfederasyon gücünü pekiştirdi. Bu sırada Erasmus, Zwingli ve Luther gibi düşünürlerin öncülüğündeki reform hareketi özellikle şehirlerde etkili olmaya başladı. Yoksul halkın sırtında ağır yük olarak görülmeleri sebebiyle tepki duyulan din adamlarının yozlaşması eleştirilirken Zürih başta olmak üzere bazı kantonlar Katolik âyinlerini yasakladı. Bunun karşısında Katolik kantonlar da kendi topraklarında Protestanlık propagandasını yasakladı. Dinî farklılık ve bölünmeler kantonlar arasında zaman zaman gerginliğin tırmanmasına sebep olsa da İsviçre’nin yansızlık politikası izlemesini ve Otuzyıl savaşları (1618-1648) dışında kalmasını sağlamıştır. Vestfalya (Westfalen) Antlaşması’yla (1648) büyük devletler, imparatorluk karşısında konfederasyonun tam bağımsızlık ve tarafsızlığını kabul ettiler. İsviçre Konfederasyonu XVIII. yüzyıl boyunca Avrupa’daki savaşların dışında kalmayı başardı. Ancak 1798’de Fransızlar ülkeyi işgal etti. Fransa’da Napolyon imparatorluğunun çöküşünden sonra yirmi iki kanton tarafından yeni bir anayasa çerçevesinde tekrar konfederasyon antlaşması imzalandı (7 Ağustos 1815) ve Viyana Kongresi’nde Fransızlar’ın ilhak ettiği topraklar geri verilerek ülkenin dâimî tarafsızlığı tanındı. 1848’deki anayasa değişikliğiyle ülkeyi oluşturan kantonlar, merkezi Bern’de bulunan federal birlik durumuna geldi. Federal meclis ulusal konsey ve kantonlar konseyine bölündü ve ortak yürütme federal konseye bırakıldı. Kantonlar arasındaki gümrükler kaldırılarak İsviçre tek bir ekonomik bölgeye dönüştürüldü. 1920 Londra bildirisiyle, I. Dünya Savaşı’nda tarafsız kalan İsviçre’nin her türlü silâhlı çatışmanın dışında tutulması hükme bağlandı ve aynı yıl içerisinde merkezi Cenevre’de bulunan Milletler Cemiyeti kuruldu. İsviçre II. Dünya Savaşı’nda da tarafsızlığını sürdürerek savaşa girmedi. Birleşmiş Milletler’e üye olmayan İsviçre’de 1992 yılında yapılan referandumlarda seçmenlerin çoğu Dünya Bankası ve Uluslararası Para Fonu’na (IMF) üyelikten yana oy kullanırken Avrupa Birliği’ne katılmayı reddetti.
700 yılı aşkın geleneğiyle dünyanın en eski demokrasi tecrübesine sahip olan ülke, aynı zamanda 300’ten fazla uluslararası kuruluşun yanında yüzlerce bankanın faaliyet gösterdiği dünyanın en önemli finans merkezlerinden biridir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
The World Factbook 1995 , Washington 1995, s. 406-408.
SOPEMI Reports, Continuous Reporting System on Migration , Paris 1995.
J. Waardenburg, “Muslims as Dhimmis, The Emancipation of Muslims in Europe: The Case of Switzerland”, Muslims in the Margin: Political Responses to the Presense of Islam in Western Europe (ed. W. A. R. Shadid – P. S. van Koningsveld), Kampen 1996, s. 147.
A. L. Bloch, “Switzerland”, EAm. , XXVI, 142-153.
“Switzerland”, EBr. , XVII, 867-887.
“İsviçre”, ABr. , XII, 100-107.
“İsviçre”, a.e.: Ana Yıllık 1994 , s. 564, 572.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2001 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 23. cildinde, 417-418 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.
III. ÜLKEDE İSLÂMİYET ve İSLÂM ARAŞTIRMALARI Müslümanların İsviçre ile ilk temasları, X. yüzyılda Endülüs Hükümdarı III. Abdurrahman zamanında meydana geldi. Müslüman askerî birlikleri, bugün İsviçre’nin güney sınırında kalan Cenevre gölünden itibaren Valais, içerideki Grisons (Graubünden) ve Coire’nın bulunduğu bölgelere ve Almanya sınırında yer alan Constance gölünün yakınındaki Saint Gall’e kadar ilerledilerse de kalıcı yerleşim yerleri kuramadılar. İsviçreliler’in İslâm dünyasıyla temasları ise Haçlı seferleri ve 1798’de Napolyon’un Mısır seferine verdikleri askerler vasıtasıyla olmuştur. Kurumsal anlamda müslümanların bu ülkedeki ilk faaliyeti, Kādiyânîlik (Ahmediyye) hareketinin bütün Avrupa’daki faaliyetlerini yürütmek amacıyla XX. yüzyılın ortalarında Zürih’te bir merkez oluşturmasıyla gerçekleşti; burada bulunan ve ülkedeki ilk cami olarak kabul edilen Mahmud Camii’ni de bu hareket inşa etmişti (1963). 1960’lı yıllarda Türkiye ile diğer İslâm ülkelerinden gelen müslüman işçiler İslâm dininin İsviçre’de tanınmasında aktif rol oynadılar. İlk İslâm merkezi 1961’de Cenevre’de kuruldu. Kısa sürede büyük çoğunluğu Türkler tarafından açılan mescidlerin sayısı altmışı buldu. 1970’te 30.000 olan müslüman nüfus 1980’de 56.000’e ulaştı. 1990 yılında 157.000 olan müslüman nüfusun sayısı, Yugoslavya / Bosna krizi sırasındaki göçlerin de etkisiyle 1999 yılına gelindiğinde 200.000’i geçmiştir. Bunların 92.000’i (% 46) Türk, 72.800’ü (% 36,4) Boşnak, 18.400’ü (% 9,2) Kuzey Afrikalılar’dır. Geri kalanlar ise Lübnan, İran, Pakistan, Mısır ve Afganistan kökenlilerle İsviçre vatandaşı müslümanlardır. Sayıları 7500’ü bulan yerli müslümanların ne kadarının mühtedi olduğu bilinmemektedir. 1984 resmî rakamları 3500 göçmen müslüman erkeğin İsviçreli kadınlarla evlendiğini göstermekte ve bu rakamın 1990’lı yıllarda iki katına çıktığı tahmin edilmektedir. Bu istatistikler, İslâm’ı seçen İsviçreliler’in sayısının her geçen gün arttığını gösteren bir işaret sayılabilir. İsviçreli mühtedilerin en tanınmışları, tasavvuf yoluyla müslüman olan ve önemli eserler veren Frithjof Schuon ile (Îsâ Nûreddin), Titus Burckhardt’tır.
Genelde dinî derneklerin faaliyetleri sonucu açılan ibadethânelerin çoğu mescid şeklinde olmakla birlikte Zürih ve Cenevre gibi büyük şehirlerde çeşitli İslâm ülkelerinin maddî desteğiyle yapılmış camiler de bulunmaktadır. Türkler’in kurduğu cami ve dinî derneklerin sayısı 100’den fazladır. Diğer milletlere mensup müslümanlar tarafından kurulan dinî dernek ve cami sayısı ise elli civarındadır. İslâm, devlet tarafından resmî din sayılmadığı için müslüman öğrenciler okulda din eğitimi görmemektedir. Bu konuda olduğu gibi başka konularda da fazla bir ayrıcalık tanınmamakta, meselâ İslâmî usullere göre hayvan kesimine izin verilmemektedir; dolayısıyla müslümanlar et ihtiyaçlarını başka ülkelerden karşılamaktadırlar. Türk çocuklarının dinî eğitimi, Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı ve Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı’nca gönderilen din görevlileri ve öğretmenler tarafından yürütülmektedir. İsviçre okul müfredatında yer almayan bu dersler, günlük programın bitiminde istekli çocuklardan oluşturulan sınıflarda veya Kur’an kurslarında Türk öğretmenler tarafından okutulmaktadır. Bu kurslar genelde Kur’an öğretmeye yönelik olduğu için Türkler dışındaki müslüman öğrencilerden de rağbet görmektedir. Türkler ve müslümanlar kendi çocuklarını eğitmek amacıyla İsviçre’de özel okul açma hakkına sahip olmakla birlikte henüz bu statüde bir okul bulunmamaktadır. Bununla birlikte okullarda en kalabalık grupları teşkil eden Türk ve Boşnak çocuklarına kendi dil ve kültürlerini öğretmeye yönelik dersler verilmektedir.
İsviçre’de müslümanların dinî faaliyetlerini organize eden belli başlı kuruluşlar arasında öğrencilerin eğitimine maddî destek sağlamak, neşriyat yapmak ve sosyal hizmetlerde bulunmak maksadıyla Suudi Arabistan tarafından Cenevre’de 1979’da kurulan Centre Islamique (el-Merkezü’l-İslâmî) ve Fondation Culturelle Islamique (el – Müessesetü’s-sekāfiyyetü’l-İslâmiyye), 1981’de Zürih’teki Islamische Gemeinschaft in der Deutschsprachigen Schweiz ve İsviçre’de yaşayan müslümanların, özellikle Türkler’in dinî görevlerini yerine getirebilmeleri için gereken çalışmaları yapmak, sosyal ve kültürel hizmetlerde bulunmak amacıyla 1987 yılında Zürih’te kurulan İsviçre Türk Diyanet Vakfı sayılabilir.
İsviçre’de İslâmiyat ve şarkiyat çalışmalarının geçmişi bir hayli eskiye dayanmaktadır. Basel şehri birçok Arapça kitabın Latince’ye çevrildiği yerdi; Kur’an (1543) ve Batlamyus’un el-Mecisṭî ’si (1569) bunlar arasındadır. İsviçreli ilk şarkiyatçı olarak öne çıkan kişi, Zürih ve Heidelberg üniversitelerinde Sâmî diller profesörlüğü yapan, Bibliotheca Orientalis (Heidelberg 1658) ve Historia Orientalis (Tiguri 1660) gibi çalışmaları ile tanınan J. H. Hottinger’dir (ö. 1667). Şarkiyat çalışmalarının hızlandırılmasında İsviçreliler’in 1798’de Napolyon’un Mısır seferine katılmalarının büyük etkisi görülür. XIX. yüzyılda çeşitli İsviçre üniversitelerinde Doğu dilleri öğretimiyle başlayan ilgi zamanla İslâm ilimlerini de içine almıştır. Filistin üzerinde uzman olan ve Almanya-Filistin Cemiyeti’ni kuran, Arabische Grammatik (Leipzig 1885) ve Der arabische Dialekt von Mosul und Mārdīn (Leipzig 1904) adlı eserlerin sahibi Albert Socin bu yüzyılın en önde gelen İsviçreli şarkiyatçısıdır. Daha sonra onu Arap epigrafyasının kurucusu Max van Berchem, Bale Üniversitesi Arapça hocalarından Friedrich Schulthess ve özellikle matematik tarihi araştırmaları ile ünlü Heinrich Suter takip etmişlerdir. Arabistan seyahatnâmesiyle tanınan J. Ludwig Burckhardt, British Museum’un kütüphane kataloglarını hazırlayan Charles Rieu, İslâm tarihiyle ilgili çalışmaları bulunan H. Frederick Amedroz, Memlükler dönemi İslâm tarihi ve Arapça kitâbeler üzerinde yaptığı çalışmalarla bilinen İskenderiye Üniversitesi Kütüphanesi müdürü E. Combe, Hamburg, Zürih ve Basel üniversitelerinde Doğu dilleri profesörü olarak çalışan ve Türkiye kütüphaneleriyle ilgili araştırmaları bulunan Rudolf Tschudi, Doğu tarihi ve coğrafyası konuları uzmanı Cesar Dubler diğer tanınmış isimlerdir. Ayasofya’nın tamiri yanında İstanbul’da birçok bina yapan mimar Gaspare Trajano Fossati, İstanbul’daki eski eserler üzerinde çalışmaları bulunan ve seyyah rehberleri hazırlayan Ernest Mamboury de İsviçrelidir. İsviçre’de bugün Zürih, Cenevre, Basel, Lozan, Neuchâtel, Freiburg ve Bern üniversitelerinde Arap dili ve İslâm araştırmalarıyla ilgili çeşitli enstitü ve bölümler bulunmaktadır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
H. K. Sherwani, Muslim Colonies in France, Northern Italy and Switzerland , Lahore 1964, s. 140-141, 149-150.
Necîb el-Akīkī, el-Müsteşriḳūn , Kahire 1965, s. 877-886.
M. A. Kettani, Muslim Minorities in the World , London 1986, s. 46-47.
The New Islamic Presence in Western Europe (ed. T. Gerholm – Y. G. Lithman), London 1988, s. 81-265.
J. S. Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe , Edinburgh 1992, s. 87-90, 176.
a.mlf., “Muslimûn”, EI2 (İng.) , VII, 702.
Faika B. Croisier, “Switzerland”, World Survey of Islam Manuscripts (ed. Geoffrey Roper), London 1994, III, 167-178.
J. Waardenburg, “Muslims as Dhimmis. On the Emancipation of Muslim Immigrants in Europe: The Case of Switzerland”, Muslims in the Margin (ed. W. A. R. Shahid – P. S. van Koningsveld), Kampen 1996, s. 145-163.
“Muslims in Switzerland”, News of Muslim in Europe , Birmingham 30 April 1986.
J.-C. Basset, “Le croissant au pays de le croix fédérale, musulmans et chéritens en Suisse”, Islamochristiana , XV, Roma 1989, s. 121-133.
P. Haenni, “Divergent Trajectories: Islam and Ethnicity in Switzerland”, ISIM Newsletter , sy. 6, Leiden 2000, s. 31.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2001 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 23. cildinde, 418-420 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.