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KABİLE Skip to content Aynı soya mensup aileler topluluğu, boy, aşiret.
Arapça’da “önüne almak, karşısına almak” anlamındaki kabl kökünden gelen kabîle , kafatasını oluşturan ve karşılıklı duran dört kemikten her birinin adıdır. İnsan topluluklarını meydana getiren alt kümeleri insan vücudunun bazı organlarına benzeterek adlandırma anlayışından hareketle, aynı atadan gelen ve birbirine kan bağıyla bağlı bulunan büyük insan topluluğuna bu isim verilmiştir. Câhiliye dönemi şiirlerinde de geçen kabile kelimesi Kur’an’da bir defa ve çoğul şekliyle (kabâil) kullanılmıştır (el-Hucurât 49/13). Sosyal yapının muhtelif alt kümeleri cizm/cezm, cumhûr, şa‘b , kabile, imâre/amâre, batn, fahiz/fahz, aşîre, fasîle, raht şeklinde sıralanır. Bazan cummâ, hay, beyt, üsre, itre ve zürriyye de çeşitli kümeleri tanımlamak üzere kullanılır (Nüveyrî, II, 286; Cevâd Ali, IV, 316-319). Bu grupların büyüklükleri, sıralamaları ve örnekleri konusunda farklı görüşler bulunmakla birlikte kabilenin şa‘bdan küçük, aşîreden büyük olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Şa‘b (çoğulu şuûb) ve kabilenin yanında aşîre, fasîle ve raht gibi bazı kelimeler Kur’an’da geçmekte, ayrıca Hz. Ya‘kūb’un on iki oğlu ve onların soyundan gelen İsrâiloğulları’nın on iki kabilesi için esbât kullanılmaktadır.
Soy birliği şuuruna dayalı sosyal, ekonomik ve siyasî örgütlenme biçimini de ifade eden, nesilden nesile aktarılan kültürün bir arada tuttuğu kabilenin kimliği din, dil (lehçe), tarihî rivayetler ve töre farklılaşması gibi sembolik alanlarda ortaya çıkar. Kıyafet kabile kimliğinin en önemli simgesel ifade aracı olduğundan muhtelif başlık, silâh ve maske gibi semboller bu maksatla kullanılmıştır. Kabile farklılaşması kumaş, kilim ve halı dokumasına akseden desenlere de yansımış ve bazı kabileler belirli desenleriyle ayırt edilmiştir. XIX. yüzyılın kabile yapısıyla modern toplum arasındaki farkları evrimci bir bakış açısından sosyal tekâmülün farklı safhalarıyla açıklayan ve kabileyi ilkel toplumların örgütlenme biçimi olarak gören yaklaşımlar değer yargısı yüklü olduğu için eleştirilmiştir.
Kabile toplumunda kan bağı önemlidir, fakat bu hiçbir zaman toprağa olan bağlılığı dışlamamaktadır. Hemen hemen bütün yerleşik kabileler sınırları belirli ortak topraklara sahiptir ve kan bağı kabilenin siyasî yapısını açıklamakta her zaman yeterli olmamaktadır. Ayrıca kabile içinde belli bir hukuk anlayışının ve gönüllü antlaşmaya dayalı ilişkilerin varlığı da ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Dolayısıyla coğrafyanın millî kimliği belirleyici olması veya antlaşmaya dayalı gönüllü ilişki tarzının sosyal kurumların temelini oluşturması gibi kriterler kabile ve modern toplumu ayırt etmede artık faydalı bulunmamaktadır.
Kabile toplum düzenini şekil ve ölçek seviyesinde modern toplumla karşılaştırmak daha sağlıklı bir yaklaşımdır. Kabile milletle mukayese edildiğinde genellikle daha küçük hacimlidir, nisbeten kapalı bir sistem oluşturur ve etnik merkezlidir. Kabile içinde modern milletlerde olduğu gibi büyük çaplı bir ekonomik hayat ve ekonomik sınıflaşma gözlemlenmez. Töre, örf veya gelenek önemli olduğundan kültürel ve sosyal değişme nâdiren ve çok yavaş olarak meydana çıkar. Ancak kabile toplumunun değişime tamamen kapalı olduğu da söylenemez. Bazı kabilelerin siyasî örgütlenmeleri oldukça merkezîleşmiştir ve âdeta küçük bir devletten farksızdır. Bunlar arasında Doğu Afrika’da nufusu 1 milyonu geçen Baganda, 2 milyonu aşan nüfusuyla Ruanda, yarım milyon civarında nüfusuyla Batı Afrika’daki Nupe ve Güney Afrika’daki Zulu zikredilebilir. Benzer şekilde Kuzeydoğu Afrika’da Galla ve Somali yaklaşık 3 milyon nüfusa sahiptir. Bunun yanında kabile kültürünün içine kapalı olması da fazla abartılmamalıdır. Hindu, Arap ve Türk kabilelerinde görüldüğü gibi kabileler evrensel dinlere mensubiyetleri vasıtasıyla yaygın kültürlerle ilişki kurmakta ve dış dünyaya açık davranmaktadır. Bu tür kabileler bir yandan katıldıkları evrensel büyük gelenekle ilişkilerini devam ettirirken diğer yandan kendilerine ait küçük geleneklerini de muhafaza etmektedirler.
Modernleşme, endüstrileşme ve şehirleşme kabile esasına dayalı geleneksel toplum yapısını sarsmıştır, ancak bu topyekün bir dönüşüm değildir. Zira kabile toplum düzeniyle modern toplum düzeni arasında çarpıcı benzerlikler vardır. Toplumları bir gelişme şeması içerisinde ele alan evrimci sosyal teoriler etkilerini kaybettikçe kabile ve modern toplum arasındaki bu ortaklıklar zamanla daha fazla ortaya çıkmaktadır. Ancak modernleşen dünyada kabile bağlarının giderek zayıfladığı ve millî kimliğin güç kazandığı gözden kaçmamaktadır. Günümüzde kabile kimliği birçok bölgede millî kimlikle birlikte ve karmaşık bir ilişki içinde kullanılmaktadır. Millî kimliğin modernleşme sürecinde bazı bölgelerde kabile veya aşiret kimliğini tamamen ya da kısmen ortadan kaldırdığı yahut en azından önemini azalttığı gözlemlenebilir.
Batı sömürgeciliğine karşı yerli halkların direnişinde kabileler zaman zaman önemli roller oynamışlardır. Kabile yapıları ve kabile kimliği genel olarak sömürgecilik döneminde de varlığını korumuş ve önemini muhafaza etmiştir. Diğer taraftan pek çok ülkede sömürgeci güçlerin bazı yerli kabilelerle ittifak kurarak kendilerine direnen kabilelere karşı birlikte hareket ettikleri de görülmüştür. Afganistan ve Pakistan başta olmak üzere bazı İslâm ülkelerinde kabile farklılıkları hâlâ şiddetli sosyal çatışmalara sebep olmaktadır. Türkiye’nin doğusunda aşiretler varlıklarını sürdürmekte, siyasî, ekonomik ve sosyal hayatta etkili olmaktadır. Kabile örgütlenmesi modern dönemde ortaya çıkan sosyal, ekonomik şartlara ve modern devletin bürokratik yapısına göre kendini yeniden düzenlemiştir. Dolayısıyla kabile yapısını tamamen tarihe ait bir sosyal örgütlenme tarzı olarak görmek yanlış olur, çünkü günümüzde kabileler ve kabile kimliği, modern bir olgu olan millî devletler ve millî kimlikler yanında hâlâ varlığını sürdürmektedir.
Araplar’da kabilelerin adlandırılmasında genellikle ya ortak atanın adı (Rebîa, Mudar), ya kabilenin bağlı bulunduğu ana gövdeye veya alt kollarına nisbetle kan bağını belirten bir ifade (Benî Ümeyye, Benî Hâşim), bazan annenin adı (Hindif) ve bazan da yer adı (Gassân) kullanılmaktaydı. Ayrıca kabileye verilen kişi adının başına “el-” takısı (ال) getirilerek çoğulunun yapıldığı da oluyordu (el-Huveytât).
Arap kabileleri yerleşik veya göçebe hayat yaşamakta idiler. Çöl ve vahalarda (bâdiye) develeriyle birlikte konar göçer olarak çadırlarda yaşayanlara bedevî (ehlü’l-bâdiye, ehlü’l-veber), köy, kasaba ve şehirlerde kerpiçten yapılmış evlerde yerleşik hayat yaşayanlara da hadarî (ehlü’l-meder) denilmekteydi.
Her kabilenin yaşadığı, konakladığı veya mülk edindiği bir toprağı vardı; “menzil” yahut “büyûtü’l-kabîle, büyûtü’l-aşîre” adı verilen bu yerlerden başkalarının izinsiz geçmesine ya da buralara yerleşmesine müsaade edilmezdi. Sınırlar genellikle vadi, tepe ve kum tepecikleri gibi şeylerle belirlendiğinden kabileler arasında anlaşmazlıklar ve çatışmalar çıkar, savaş, kuraklık, daha iyi otlak arama gibi sebeplerle de sık sık yer değiştirilirdi. Özel toprak mülkiyeti tanınmaz, otlaklar ve su kaynakları kabile için hayatî öneme sahip olduğundan ortak mal sayılırdı. Kabilelerin önemli gelir kaynaklarından biri, diğer kabilelere karşı düzenlenen yağma ve baskınlardan elde edilen ganimetlerdi.
Kabilenin büyük, küçük, kuvvetli veya zayıf oluşu mensuplarının sayısına, nüfuzuna ve mal varlığına göre belirlenmekteydi. Bu sebeple kabileler arasında yardımlaşma, dayanışma ve himaye amacıyla “hilf” adı verilen antlaşmalar yapılmakta, ittifaklar kurulmaktaydı. Savunma amacına yönelik olan hilf için ilgili kabile mensupları bir araya gelir ve törenle yemin ederlerdi. Yeminleşen kabileler artık bir tek kabile gibi olur ve birine yapılacak saldırı diğerine de yapılmış sayılır, herhangi birinin üçüncü tarafa verdiği eman da kabul edilirdi (geniş bilgi için bk. HİLF ).
Kabile üyelerinin birbirlerine nesep yoluyla bağlı olmaları kabile asabiyetini ortaya çıkarmıştır. Düzenli bir siyasî birlikten ve hukukî yapıdan mahrum bulunan Câhiliye döneminde, bir kabilenin veya kabileden bir kişinin başka bir kabile tarafından -hangi sebeple olursa olsun- tecavüze uğramasını önlemeye veya herhangi bir tecavüzün vukuu halinde bunun doğurduğu maddî ve mânevî zararın telâfisini sağlamaya sevkeden en önemli ve etkili âmil asabiyet geleneğiydi. Câhiliye döneminde sıkça görülen kabileler arası savaşların (bk. EYYÂMÜ’l-ARAB ) temelinde bu gelenek yatıyordu. Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de (el-Feth 48/26; el-Hucurât 49/9-13; et-Tekâsür 102/1-8) ve hadislerde (Müslim, “İmâre”, 57; Ebû Dâvûd, “Edeb”, 112) soy üstünlüğü, kabilecilik ve kavmiyet davalarına zemin teşkil eden, kişinin haksız bir konuda dahi kendi kavmine yardımcı olmasını öngören asabiyet kınanmış ve yasaklanmıştır (bk. ASABİYET ).
Şahsî meziyetleri veya zenginliği gibi sebeplerle kabile başkanı olarak tanınan kişilere şeyh, reis veya seyyid denilmekteydi. Şeyhlerin fazla bir imtiyazı bulunmadığı halde görev ve sorumlulukları ağırdı. Kabile mensupları üzerinde mutlak bir otoriteye sahip değillerdi ve önemli konuları kabileyi meydana getiren ailelerin büyüklerinden oluşan mecliste tartışmak zorundaydılar; bu bakımdan emretmekten çok hakemlik yaparlardı.
Kuralların ve geleneklerin dışına çıkan ve kabilenin şerefine leke sürenler cezalandırılır, aile ve kabilesiyle bağları koparılırdı. “Hal‘” denilen bu büyük ceza kişinin başka bir kabile, aile veya şahıs tarafından himaye altına alınmasına kadar sürerdi. “Halî‘, tarîd, laîn” gibi isimler verilen cezalı kişilerin o kabile mensubu olmaktan kaynaklanan hak ve görevleri sona erer, onların bu durumları hac ve panayır mevsimlerinde açıkça ilân edilirdi. Bazan bu kişiler belirli yerlere sürülür, bazan da kabilesinden kovulan ve himaye hakkı kazanamayan fakir kimselerin (su‘lûk) çete kurarak yağma ve baskın yaptıkları olurdu.
Şairlerin kabilede önemli bir yeri bulunmaktaydı. Bir kabileden şair çıktığı zaman bayram ve düğünlerdeki gibi şenlik düzenlenir, ziyafet verilirdi. Çünkü mânevî değerlerin koruyucusu olan büyük şairler yetiştirmek kabileler için gurur ve şerefti. Bizzat reisin şair olması ise kabile için çok büyük bir bahtiyarlıktı; meselâ Tağlib kabilesinden Cüşem kolunun reisi Amr b. Külsûm aynı zamanda muallaka şairlerindendi. Bazı şairler kabilelerinden ayrılarak o dönemde büyük nüfuz sahibi olan kimselerin veya hükümdarların yanına gider, orada kabilelerinin menfaatlerini korurlardı. VI. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren Mütelemmis, Tarafe b. Abd, Nâbiga ez-Zübyânî ve Hassân b. Sâbit gibi şairlerin toplandığı Lahmî ve Gassânî meliklerinin sarayları buna örnek olarak verilebilir. Her kabilenin sanatkârlarının şiirlerini (eş‘âr), neseplerine dair bilgileri (ensâb), destanları (emsâl), övündükleri hasletleri (mefâhir) ve hâtıraları, önemli hadiseleri (ahbâr) yazdıkları bir ana kitabı (divan) vardı. Bazı Câhiliye şairlerinin ifadelerine göre çok eski bir mâzisi olduğu anlaşılan bu tarz eserlerin tedvininde Hz. Ömer’in emir ve teşvikiyle yeni bir safhanın açıldığı, Emevîler devrinde bunların sayılarının çok arttığı, hatta Hasan b. Bişr el-Âmidî’nin IV. (X.) yüzyıl sonlarına kadar mevcut olan bu kabile divanlarının seksen kadarından istifade ettiği bilinmektedir (bk. AHBÂR ).
Câhiliye döneminde her kabilenin bir putu vardı. Onun dışında da Lât, Menât, Uzzâ gibi ortak putlara sahiptiler. Ayrıca aya ve güneşe de tapıyorlardı. Arabistan yarımadasının birçok bölgesinde çeşitli tapınaklar inşa edilmişti; bunlara “beyt”, kübik olanlarına da “kâbe” deniliyordu. En büyük ortak tapınak ise çok sayıda putun muhafaza edildiği Mekke’deki Kâbe idi. Araplar arasında Hz. İbrâhim’in dinine tâbi Hanîfler’in yanı sıra Lahmîler, Gassânîler ve Tenûh gibi bazı hânedan ve kabileler de tamamen veya kısmen Hıristiyanlığı kabul etmişlerdi.
Kabile esasına dayalı bir toplum yapısına sahip bulunan Araplar, içinde yaşadıkları siyasî ve sosyal şartların doğurduğu asabiyet duygusunun tabii sonucu olarak nesep şecerelerinin korunmasına büyük önem vermişlerdir. Bu sebeple “ensâb” denilen ve kabilelerin soyunu inceleyen müstakil bir ilim dalı ortaya çıkmıştır. Bir kabilenin nesebini bilmek aynı zamanda o kabileye ait şiirlerle çeşitli bilgi ve rivayetlerin de bilinmesini gerektirdiğinden ensâb kitaplarında ahbâr, eş‘âr ve ensâb bilgilerine birlikte yer verilmiştir. İlk dönemlerden itibaren kabilelerle ilgili çeşitli kitap ve risâleler yazılmış, böylece bu konuda çok geniş bir literatür oluşmuştur (bk. ENSÂB ).
İslâm dini kabile asabiyetine dayalı üstünlük iddialarını yasaklamakla birlikte insanların kendi neseplerini ve mensubu bulundukları kabilelerle ilgili hususları bilmelerini normal karşılamış, kabile yapısı sosyal bir gerçeklik olarak görülmüştür. Bu durum aynı zamanda evlilik, miras, diyet ve âkıleyle ilgili uygulamalar gibi hususlar açısından da zorunluluk arzetmekteydi. Bununla birlikte kabilecilik tamamen kaybolmamış, zaman zaman özellikle siyasî meselelerde kendini hissettirmiştir. Hz. Peygamber’in vefatından sonra baş gösteren ridde hareketleri, hilâfetin Kureyş’e ait olduğu iddiası, devlet nimetlerinden faydalanmayı düşünen Emevî kabilesine mensup Hz. Osman’ın akrabası bazı âmil ve valilerin onun şehid edilmesiyle sonuçlanan olumsuz faaliyetleri, Muâviye b. Ebû Süfyân’ın Hz. Osman’ın intikamını almak üzere ortaya çıkıp nesebe dayalı siyasî mücadeleleri başlatması, bunun bir neticesi olarak Şuûbiyye hareketinin doğması ve toplumun Kuzeyli-Güneyli, Mudarî-Yemenî ya da Emevî-Hâşimî şeklinde bölünmesiyle Emevîler’in yıkılışı, iktidar mücadeleleri sırasında bazı Arap kabilelerinin şan ve şereflerini izhar etmek maksadıyla hadis uydurma cihetine gitmeleri ve Abbâsîler’in iktidar mücadelesinde, daha sonra da birçok İslâm devletinde kabile merkezli ayaklanmaların sık sık yaşanmış olması bunun en çarpıcı örnekleri arasındadır.
Türkçe’de kabile terimi hacmine göre il (el), budun, ulus, taife, boy, aşiret, urug, cemaat, oymak ve oba kelimeleriyle ifade edilmektedir. Türk tarihinde farklı isimlerle adlandırılan kabile yapısı yegâne sosyal örgütlenme biçimidir. Meselâ Oğuz ve Türkmen boylarının on binlerce hâneyi içerdiği bilinmektedir ve günümüz Türkiye’sinde yaşayan Türkler de aslen Oğuz boyundandır. Her boyun başında “boy beyi” denilen bir lider bulunurdu; oymakların başında bulunanlar ise boy beyinin ailesindendi. Oymaklar da daha küçük birimlere ayrılırdı. Boylar han sülâlesine mensup bir şahsın veya dirayetli bir boy beyinin etrafında toplanarak illeri meydana getirirlerdi. Oğuz ili on ikisi Bozok, on ikisi Üçok diye bilinen iki ana kola ayrılmış yirmi dört boydan oluşmaktaydı. Her boyun hayvanlarına, eşyalarına vurduğu bir damgası vardı. Oğuzlar’ın XI. yüzyıl Selçuklu fütuhatından sonra daha ziyade Türkmen adı altında kurdukları siyasî topluluklar da (iller) boy adıyla anılan kabilelerdir; meselâ Akkoyunlu, Karakoyunlu ve Dulkadırlı illerini meydana getiren Türkmen kabileleri bunlardandı. Anadolu’da kurulan diğer çeşitli Türk devletleri ve beylikler de bu arada hatırlanabilir. Geçimleri genelde avcılık ve hayvancılığa dayanan boylar yerleşik hayata geçtikten sonra da temel özelliklerini korumaya çalışmışlardır.
Türk tarihinin birçok yönü kabile kimlikleri arasındaki çatışmalar göz önüne alınmadan anlaşılamaz. Türkler’in genellikle dünyanın birçok yerindeki diğer kabileler gibi ne İslâm’dan önceki ne de İslâm’dan sonraki tarihinde kabile yapısının tam olarak nasıl işlediği hâlâ bilinmemektedir. Türk toplumunun İslâm öncesi dönemdeki kabile yapısı İslâm’a girmekle ortadan kalkmamış, ancak dinî kimlik en azından teorik düzeyde önem kazanmıştır. Sadece çeşitli Türk boylarını değil birçok yabancı kavim ve kabileyi de yöneten Osmanlı Devleti dinî kimliğin baskın olduğu bir toplumdur. Osmanlı Devleti kabileden devlete dönüşmüş bir sosyal örgütlenmedir. Osmanlılar’ın mensup bulunduğu Oğuz-Kayı boyunun diğer boylarla olan ilişkileri ve bundan doğan çatışmalar ilk dönem Osmanlı tarihinde önemli bir yer tutar. Osmanoğulları’nın yükselişi ve neticede diğer boylar üzerinde hâkimiyet kurması cihan devletine giden yolda atılmış ilk adımdır.
Boylar arasındaki farklılıklar Türk dilinin gelişmesi açısından önemlidir. Türkçe, boylar yoluyla altı ana koldan (Bulgar, Oğuz, Kıpçak, Karluk, Uygur, Kırgız) gelişerek günümüzde yaşayan yirmi üç lehçeye ayrılmıştır: Çuvaş, Türkiye (Oğuz), Azerbaycan, Türkmen, Gagauz, Salar, Kazak, Karakalpak, Nogay, Tatar, Başkırt, Karaim, Karaçay-Balkar, Kumuk, Kırım-Tatar, Uygur, Özbek, Yâkut, Hakas, Tuva, Tofa, Kırgız, Altay. Oymak kimliği ve oymaklar arası farklılaşma dil yanında başka sembolik alanlarda da ortaya çıkmış, özellikle giyim kuşam yanında kilim ve halı desenlerine de yansımıştır; belirli kabileler belirli halı ve kilim desenleriyle ayırt edilmektedir. Ancak zamanımızda türlü sosyal ve ekonomik gelişmelerin etkisiyle mahallî ve etnik yapıların güçlerini kaybettikleri de bilinmektedir (ayrıca bk. KONAR GÖÇER ). Günümüzde İslâm dünyasının diğer bölgelerinde de kabileler sosyal yapının temel öğeleri olarak varlıklarını sürdürmektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “şʿab”, “fḫẕ”, “ḳbl” md.leri.
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İbrahim Sarıçam, Emevî-Hâşimî İlişkileri , Ankara 1997, s. 22-30.
Engin Ayan, Horasan ve Civarında Oğuz Boyları: 1157-1220 (doktora tezi, 1998), MÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, tür.yer.
Ağacan Beyoğlu, Türkmen Boylarının Tarih ve Etnografyası , İstanbul 2000, s. 11-14.
İhsân en-Nâs, “Kütübü’l-ensâbi’l-ʿArabiyye”, MMLADm. , LXIV (1989), s. 539-580; LXV/3 (1990), s. 387-412; LXVI/3 (1991), s. 403-429; LXVII/2 (1992), s. 195-224; LXVIII/1 (1993), s. 3-58; LXVIII/4 (1993), s. 579-593.
Ahmet Önkal, “Araplarda Ensâb İlmi ve İslâm Tarihi Açısından Önemi”, SÜ İlâhiyat Fakültesi Dergisi , III, Konya 1990, s. 117-131; IV (1991), s. 55-72.
“Boy”, TA , VII, 478-479.
J. Chelhod, “Ḳabīla”, EI2 (İng.) , IV, 334-335.
“Kabile”, Yeni Türk Ansiklopedisi , İstanbul 1985, V, 1605-1606.
Hakkı Dursun Yıldız, “Arap”, DİA , III, 273.
L. Beck, “Tribe”, The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World (ed. J. L. Esposito), Oxford 1995, IV, 230-234.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2001 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 24. cildinde, 30-32 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.