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KARÂÎLİK Skip to content Milâdî VIII. yüzyılda Irak’ta doğan ve Tanah’ı dinî hükümlerin yegâne kaynağı olarak kabul eden yahudi mezhebi.
Mezhebin İbrânîce ismi olan Kara’îm ’in (okuyanlar) “okumak” anlamındaki kara’ kökünden türediği ve müntesiplerinin Tanah’ı (Ahd-i Atîk) çok okuduklarına işaret ettiği belirtilmektedir. Ayrıca kelimenin kökünde “davet etmek” mânasının da bulunduğu ve Kara’îm isminin “davet ediciler” anlamına geldiği de ileri sürülmektedir. Müntesiplerine “kutsal metnin çocukları” mânasında Beneî Mikra, Ba‘ale Mikra isimleri de verilmiştir. Kara’îm ismi Arapça’da Karrâî, Karrâ’ûn , Kuman-Kıpçak Türkçesi’nde Karaylar , Batı dillerinde Karaite, Caraime gibi kelimelerle karşılanmıştır.
Mezhebin doğmasında birtakım dinî, siyasî ve içtimaî sebepler etkili olmuştur. Irak bölgesinin İran ve Bizans’ın etki alanından çıkmasıyla mâbedin yeniden inşası ve Kudüs’e dönüş gibi mesîhî beklentiler güçlenmişse de bölgenin milâdî VII. yüzyılda Abbâsîler’in hükümranlığına girmesiyle bu beklentiler hayal kırıklığına dönüşmüştür. Sosyal ve ekonomik problemler yaşayan bölgedeki yahudi topluluğu, kendilerini Abbâsî halifesine karşı temsil eden cemaat başkanlığının ve Talmud akademilerindeki âlimlerin tavırlarından rahatsız olmuşlardır. Abbâsîler’in Irak’ın kuzey ve doğusundaki dağlık bölgeleri iskâna açmasıyla yahudiler farklı mülteci etnik unsurlarla bir arada yaşamak zorunda kalmışlardır. Bu hususların, geleneksel Yahudiliğe karşı Anan ben David tarafından sadece yazılı Tevrat’ın dinde kaynak olduğunu savunan bir yapılanmanın ortaya çıkmasına yol açtığı ifade edilmektedir.
Rabbânî kaynaklarına göre, VIII. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Irak’taki yahudi toplumunun başkanı İshak Harkavi’nin ölümü üzerine Talmud akademisinin ileri gelenleri cemaat başkanlığı için, yaşça büyük ve daha bilgili olmasına rağmen Anan’ı değil mütevazi bir kişiliğe sahip kardeşi Hananiah’ı tercih etmişlerdir. İtirazı üzerine Abbâsî halifesi tarafından hapse atılan Anan, kendisini halifeye affettirdikten sonra Talmudcu geleneğe karşı kendi din anlayışını belirlemeye ve taraftar toplamaya başlamıştır. Rabbânîler’in bu iddiasına karşılık Kaufman Kohler, Karâîliğin sadece şahsî ihtiraslar sonucu ortaya çıkmış bir muhalefet hareketi gibi görülmesinin doğru olmadığını, Talmudculuğa karşı gelişen tabii bir reaksiyon kabul edilmesi gerektiğini belirtmiş, bu mezhebin, Tanah’ın yegâne dinî otorite oluşuna vurgu yaparak Yahudilik tarihinde kutsal metne yönelik çalışmalara ivme kazandırdığına da dikkat çekmiştir (JE , VII, 446). Rabbânî anlayışa muhalefet eden daha önceki mezheplerden etkilendiği söylenen bu yeni hareket, VIII. yüzyılda müslümanların hâkim olduğu coğrafyada önce Anâniyye adıyla ortaya çıkmış, IX. yüzyılın ilk yarısında ise Karaîm ismini almıştır.
Karâî kaynaklarına göre Anan, Rabbânî anlayışa karşı faaliyetlere başlayınca baskı ve işkenceye mâruz kaldığından Halife Mansûr’un izniyle Bağdat’tan ayrılarak Kudüs’e yerleşti. Taraftarlarından bazıları Filistin, Suriye, Mısır, Bizans, İran, Ermenistan ve Kafkasya’ya dağılarak bu yeni hareketin propagandasını yaptı. Anan’dan sonra IX. yüzyılda yetişen güçlü şahsiyetler kendi aralarında ayrılığa düşmekle birlikte onun hareketini bir mezhep haline dönüştürdüler. Karâîliğin ilk filizlendiği yerler İran, Ermenistan ve Kafkasya bölgeleridir. IX. yüzyılda yaşayan ve Karâî ismini ilk defa kullanan Benjamin en-Nihâvendî ve öğrencisi Daniel el-Kūmisî (Dâmegānî) İran Karâîleri’nin yetiştirdiği önemli şahsiyetlerdendir.
Kudüs, Filistin ve Suriye bölgelerinde Karâîlik XI. yüzyıla kadar yayılmaya devam etti. Suriye’deki Karâîler’in bir kısmı X. yüzyıldan itibaren Bizans topraklarına göçtü (Ankori, s. 84-85). 1099 yılında Haçlılar Kudüs’ü işgal ettiklerinde Rabbânî yahudilere yaptıkları zulmü Karâîler’e de uyguladılar, bunun üzerine cemaatin büyük bir kısmı Mısır’a ve Kuzey Afrika’nın diğer bölgelerine doğru ilerledi. XI. yüzyılda Karâîliği benimseyen bir yahudinin gayretiyle Karâîlik İspanya’da yayıldı, ancak XII. yüzyılda İspanyollar’ın baskılarıyla Karâîler bölgeyi terkettiler.
Bizans Karâîliği’nin aslını Irak, Filistin ve Suriye’den IX. yüzyılda başlayan ve X. yüzyılda yoğunlaşan göçler oluşturmuş, zamanla onlara yerli Rum unsurlar da katılmıştır. İstanbul Osmanlılar’ın eline geçince Karâîlik için önemli bir merkez haline gelmiş ve Edirne, Selânik, Kocaeli, Kırım gibi bölgelerden göçler gelmiştir. XI. yüzyılın sonundan başlayan ve XII. yüzyılı da kapsayan dönemde Bizanslı Karâîler Kudüs’e gidip Arapça ve İbrânîce öğrenerek Arapça Karâî kaynaklarını İbrânîce’ye tercüme etmişlerdir. Aynı dönemde yaşayan ve Karâîliğin esaslarını belirlemeye çalışan ilk âlim olduğu kaydedilen Judah ben Elijah Hadassi’nin Eshkôl ha-Kôfer adlı eseri Karâîliğin önemli ansiklopedik kaynaklarından biridir (ERE , VII, 667-668).
Özellikle XV. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren Kırım Karayları’ndan İstanbul Karâî cemaatine sürekli katılmalar olduğu gibi Balkan Karâîliği de daha çok Kırım’dan takviye edilmiştir. Ayrıca Macaristan’daki Kabar Türkleri de zamanla Trakya cemaatlerine katılmışlardır. Kırım’dan İstanbul’a göç eden Aaron ben Joseph (ö. 1320) adlı Karâî âlimi Sefer Mibhâr adlı tefsiriyle tanınmıştır. Karâîler’in İbn Meymûn’u olarak adlandırılan Aaron ben Elijah (ö. 1369), Mu‘tezile ve Aristo felsefesiyle beslenen teolojik görüşlerini bir araya getirdiği Es ha-Hayîm adlı eseri ve Karâî şeriatıyla ilgili görüşlerini yansıttığı Gan Eden ve Keter Torah adlı tefsiriyle dikkat çekmiştir.
Bizans Karâîleri’nin temelini yahudi göçmenlerle yerli Rumlar oluşturmuşsa da zamanla Kuman ve Kabar unsurların ağırlıklı olduğu Balkan Karâîleri ve Kırım Karayları İstanbul Karâîleri arasında önemli bir nüfusa sahip olmuştur. Karâîler İstanbul’da Eminönü, Karaköy ve Hasköy’ün yanı sıra Fener, Balat ve Üsküdar’da cemaatler halinde varlıklarını sürdürmüşlerdir. Zamanla küçülerek toplu halde Hasköy’de yaşarken 1918 yangınından sonra şehrin muhtelif semtlerine dağılmışlardır.
Kırım ve Güney Rusya Karayları’na gelince, Hazarlar’ın Karâîliği kabul etmesini VIII. yüzyılın ortalarında Bizans’tan sürülen yahudi göçmenlerin sağladığı ve X. yüzyılda da Bizans’tan Hazar ülkesine göçlerin gerçekleştiği, dolayısıyla Güney Rusya ve Kırım’a Karâîliğin VIII ile X. yüzyıllar arasında girmiş olabileceği ileri sürülmüştür (Ankori, s. 59, 152). Öte yandan Hazar Hakanı Bulan’a Karâîliği kabul ettiren İshak Sangari’nin önce Hazar ülkesinde faaliyet gösterdiği, ardından Kırım’a geçerek oraya yerleştiği belirtilmektedir. Karâîlik, Hazar ülkesinde ve Kırım’da muhtemelen aynı anda yayılmıştır. XIV. yüzyılda da Litvanya ve Polonya’ya kadar ulaşmıştır. Aynı dönemde Kırım Karayları’ndan bir kısmı Litvanya ve Polonya’ya göç etmiş, bugünkü Doğu Avrupa Karay cemaatinin temellerini atmıştır.
X-XII. yüzyıllar arasında altın çağını yaşayan Karâîlik Haçlı seferlerinden sonra zayıflamaya başlamıştır. Rusya’da yahudiler üzerinde yoğunlaşan baskılar Karâîler’e de yansımış, özellikle 1917 Bolşevik İhtilâli’nin ardından Kırım, Litvanya ve Polonya’da yaşayan Karaylar Amerika, Orta ve Batı Avrupa ülkelerine gitmek zorunda kalmışlardır (Kaufman, s. 40-41). II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında çok sayıda Karay Türkü’nün başta Sibirya olmak üzere Sovyetler Birliği’nin çeşitli bölgelerine sürüldüğü bilinmektedir.
Günümüzde Irak, İran, Suriye, Kuzey Afrika, İspanya, Hindistan, Çin ve Mançurya gibi ülkelerde Karâî cemaatleri kalmamıştır (a.g.e. , s. 40). İstanbul’da yaklaşık 100 kişilik cemaat dışında Anadolu ve Trakya’da da Karâî bulunmamaktadır. İsrail ve Kahire’de Karâîler küçük cemaatler halinde varlıklarını sürdürürlerken 1948’deki savaştan sonra Mısır’dakilerin çoğunluğu İsrail’e geçmiş, bir kısmı Avrupa ve Amerika’ya göç etmiştir. Toplam nüfusları kesin olarak bilinmemekle birlikte 1000’li rakamlarla ifade edilen Karâîler’in büyük çoğunluğu günümüzde eski Sovyetler Birliği topraklarında ve Polonya’da yaşamaktadır.
Karâîliğin Temel Özellikleri ve İnanç Esasları. Karâîlik, Yahudiliğin yegâne kaynağı olarak yahudi kutsal kitabı Tanah’ı kabul etmiş, Rabbânî Yahudiliği’nin sözlü Tevrat şeklinde nitelendirdiği Mişna ve Talmud literatürünün dinî otoritesine karşı çıkmıştır. Anan’ın mezhebin esaslarını belirlediği Sefer ha-Mitsvot adlı eseri günümüze kadar ulaşmamışsa da taraftarlarına, “Doğrudan Tanah’a başvurun, benim fikirlerime körü körüne bağlanmayın” dediği nakledilmektedir. Öte yandan onun Rabbânîler’in sözlü Tevrat’a yaklaşım metodunu tâdil ederek kullandığı, cumartesi günü ateş yakmak ve o gün evi terketmek yasağı ile bayram günlerinin tesbitini yeni ayı görerek yapmak ve Şavuot (haftalar) bayramını mutlaka pazar gününe rastlatmak gibi Sadûkīlik ve Essenîlik mezheplerine ait bazı dinî hükümleri de benimsediği belirtilmektedir. Anan’ın İslâm kültüründen, kutsal metinlerden kıyas yoluyla hüküm çıkarma hususunda Ebû Hanîfe’den etkilendiği ileri sürülmektedir (EI2 [İng.] , IV, 606; JE , VII, 439). Ona göre Tevrat’taki, “Siz benim emrettiğim kelimeye ne bir ilâve yapacaksınız ne de ondan bir eksiltmede bulunacaksınız. Belki size emrettiğim Yahova’nın emirlerini korursunuz” (Tesniye, 4/2) şeklindeki ifade gereği Yahova’nın emirlerini yerine getirmek için Tanah yeterlidir ve onu tamamlayıcı Rabbânî geleneğe ihtiyaç yoktur (ERE , VII, 662-663). Gelenek, kutsal metinde emredilen kuralların uygulanması için gerekli olduğunda birtakım kapalı hususlara açıklık kazandırılmasında ve ayrıntılı hale getirilmesinde sınırlı olarak kullanılmış, bunların dışında kutsal metin üzerinde yoğunlaşma esas alınmıştır.
Ancak Karâîlik’te kutsal metni esas alma prensibi korunmakla birlikte mezhebin ileri gelen âlimleri çeşitli konularda farklı kanaatlere sahip olmuşlardır. Benjamin en-Nihâvendî, Talmud’a Anan’ın gösterdiği şiddetli muhalefeti göstermemiştir. Ya‘kūb el-Kirkisânî Kitâbü’l-Envâr ve’l-merâkib adlı eserinde yahudi mezhepleri hakkında geniş bilgi vermiş, Rabbânî Yahudiliği’ni tenkit etmiş, nazar, istidlâl ve kıyasın gerekliliği konusunda mezhebinin görüşlerini aktarmış (II, 66-67), Rabbânî yahudi âlimlerinden Saîd b. Yûsuf el-Feyyûmî’nin (Saadiya Gaon) kıyası reddetmesini eleştirmiştir (II, 79-101). Onun çeşitli ilâhiyyât konularını aklî olarak ele alıp izah etmesinde de (II, 169-226) Mu‘tezile’den etkilendiği belirtilmektedir (JE , VII, 440).
Mezhebin temel özellikleri, XII. yüzyılda Judah Hadassi’nin kutsal metni anlamaya yönelik seksen farklı hermenötik kural belirleyen çalışmalarıyla gelişmiş ve XV. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru Elijah Bashyazı (Eliyahu Basiaci) döneminde son şeklini almıştır. Bu gelişmelerden sonra kutsal metinden hüküm çıkarmanın prensipleri, 1. Metnin açıkça anlaşılabilir emir ve yasaklar içerdiği hususundan hareketle lafzî (literal) anlamını kavramak; 2. Tanah’ta doğrudan ifade edilen hükümler yanında açıkça belirtilmeyenler de bulunduğundan mantıkî kıyas yoluyla bilinenlerden hareketle bilinmeyenlere ulaşmak; 3. Tevrat’ın, “Ya‘kūb cemaati için miras olarak Mûsâ bize Tevrat’ı emretti” (Tesniye, 33/4) ifadesi gereği 1 ve 2. şıklarla çözülemeyen hususlarda Karâî cemaatinin ittifakını yani icmâını esas almak şeklinde belirlenmiştir. Bütün Karâî âlimleri tarafından kabul edilmese de bu prensiplere insan aklıyla elde edilen bilgi şeklinde dördüncü bir şıkkı ekleyenler de olmuştur (EJd. , X, 777-778).
Kutsal metni tek kaynak kabul etme ve ondan hüküm çıkarma konusundaki yaklaşımlarında farklı tavra sahip bulunan Karâîler’in on maddelik inanç esaslarının Rabbânîler’inkinden özü itibariyle farklı olmadığı görülmektedir. Karâîliğin inanç esaslarıyla ilgili ilk çalışmalar Elijah Bashyazı ve öğrencisi Calep Afendopolo tarafından son şekline kavuşturulmuştur: 1. Her şeyi yoktan yaratan Tanrı’dır. 2. Her şeyi yaratan Tanrı’dır, fakat O yaratılmamıştır. 3. Tanrı birdir, hiçbir şekilde diğer yaratıklara benzemez. 4. Tanrı Mûsâ’yı elçi olarak bize göndermiştir, o peygamberlerin en büyüğüdür, onun gibi bir peygamber gönderilmemiş ve gönderilmeyecektir. 5. Tanrı Mûsâ’nın aracılığı ile mükemmel gerçeğin ve şeriatın bulunduğu tam ve yazılı olan (Rabbânî gelenekle tamamlanmaya ihtiyacı olmayan) Tevrat’ı bize göndermiştir. 6. Her mümin Tevrat’ın orijinal dilini öğrenmelidir. 7. Peygamberlik mevhibeleri Mûsâ’nınkinden düşük olsa da Tanrı başka peygamberlere de vahiy göndermiştir. 8. Tanrı ölüleri kıyamet gününde diriltecektir. 9. Tanrı âhirette insanlara dünyadaki amellerine göre ceza veya mükâfat verecektir. 10. Tanrı sürgünde olanları küçük görmez, aksine çektikleri meşakkatlerle onları temizlemeyi diler, onlar da Tanrı’nın yardımını ve Mesîh’i beklemelidirler.
İbadet ve Dinî Hükümler. Karâîlik’te kutsal kitaptan duaların okunduğu günlük ibadet sabah ve akşam olmak üzere iki defa yapılır. Ruhban sınıfı olmadığından âyini cemaatin en bilgili üyesi yönetir. Kenasa adı verilen mâbedlerinin kıblesi Sion dağındaki Beytülmakdis’tir. Kendi takvimlerine göre nisan ayının on üçünden şivan ayının yirmi üçüne kadar her yıl yetmiş günlük ve ayrıca her ayın yedinci günü, Purim bayramında iki gün ve adar ayının on dört ve on beşinci günlerinde Ester orucu tutulur. Rabbânî Yahudiliği’nde hayvandan ve ziraî mahsullerden zekât verilirken Karâîlik’te madenler dışında her türlü malın ve hayvanın onda bir oranında zekâtı verilir.
Rabbânîler’den farklı olarak Karâîlik’te, “rikkub” denilen zincirleme kıyas yoluyla Tevrat’ta evlenilmesi yasak olanların listesi, evlenen iki tarafın akrabalarının da birbirlerine haram olmalarıyla genişletilmektedir. Öte yandan yeme içmeyle ilgili hükümlerde Tanah’ta belirtilenlerin dışında Rabbânîler’den farklı kurallara uydukları gibi temizlikle ilgili olarak da daha ayrıntılı hükümlere tâbidirler.
Karâî takvimine göre yeni yılın başlangıcı nisan ayının birinci günüdür ve yeni aya gözlemle girilir, son dönemlerde gözlemin yanında hesaplamaya da başvurulmaktadır. Sebt gününde uyulması gereken yasaklar Rabbânîler’den farklı olarak cuma gününden başlayıp sebtin ertesi gününe kadar devam eder. Bu süre zarfında ibadetten başka herhangi bir şey için evden çıkılmaz, ateş yakılmaz, cinsel ilişkiye girilmez. Karâîler Hanukah bayramını kutlamazlar, Purim’i ise oruç günü olarak değerlendirirler.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Ya‘kūb el-Kirkisânî, Kitâbü’l-Envâr ve’l-merâkib (nşr. L. Nemoy), New York 1940, II, 66-67, 79-101, 169-226.
S. W. Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews , New York 1957, V, 209-285.
Z. Ankori, Karaites in Byzantium , New York 1959, s. 59, 84-85, 152-153.
R. Kaufman, Great Sects and Schisms in Judaism , New York 1967, s. 40-41.
H. H. Ben-Sasson, “The Middle Ages”, A History of the Jewish People (ed. H. H. Ben-Sasson), Cambridge-Massachusetts 1976, s. 448-451.
Şaban Kuzgun, Türklerde Yahudilik ve Doğu Avrupa Yahudilerinin Menşei Meselesi: Hazar ve Karay Türkleri , Ankara 1993, s. 186-298.
L. Nemoy, “Early Karaism”, Jewish Quarterly Review , XL, New York 1950, s. 308-310.
a.mlf., “Karaites”, UJE , VI, 316.
a.mlf., “Karaites”, EI2 (İng.) , IV, 606.
a.mlf. – Jo. H., “Karaites”, EJd. , X, 777-778.
N. Wieder, “The Qumran Sectaries and the Karaites”, Jewish Quarterly Review , XLVI-XLVII, New York 1956, s. 97-113, 269-292.
A. Harkavy, “Karaites and Karaism”, JE , VII, 439-440.
K. Kohler, “Karaites and Karaism”, a.e. , VII, 446.
S. Poznanski, “Karaites”, ERE , VII, 662-663, 667-668.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2001 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 24. cildinde, 424-426 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.