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KEFE Skip to content Kırım yarımadasında bugün Ukrayna’ya bağlı tarihî bir liman şehri.
Kırım yarımadasının güneydoğu kıyısında yer alır. İlkçağ’lardan itibaren Kıpçak steplerini Karadeniz’e, Anadolu yarımadasına ve özellikle İstanbul’a bağlayan önemli bir liman ve yerleşme yeri olarak ön plana çıkmıştır. Kefe’nin kuruluş tarihi hakkında kesin bilgi bulunmamakla beraber buranın milâttan önce VI. yüzyıldan itibaren önem kazandığı, bir Milet kolonisi olarak ortaya çıktığı belirtilir. Şehir antik dönemde Theodosia adıyla anılırken Kepoi, Kapha veya Kafa ismi ilk defa Constantine Porphyrogenitus’un eserinde geçer (m.ö. IV. yüzyıl). Burası Roma hâkimiyeti sırasında (m.ö. I. yüzyıl) Caphum adıyla bilinmekteydi. Kaffa yahut Kefe adı ise özellikle XIII. yüzyıldan başlayarak yaygınlık kazanmıştır. IV. yüzyıldan itibaren Asya’dan Avrupa istikametinde vuku bulan Türk yayılması sonunda ortaya çıkan Türk devletleri zamanında Kırım yarımadası etnik bakımdan Türk nüfusu ile tanışırken Kefe Bizans’a bağlı bir liman durumundaydı. Ancak iç işlerinde serbest bir idare ile yönetiliyordu. XIII. yüzyıldan itibaren Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti’nin Kırım bölgesiyle ilgilenmesi sonucu Kefe Türk tüccarlarının yoğun faaliyetine sahne oldu.
Kıpçaklar’ın Kalka savaşı ile (1239) Moğollar’a yenilmesinin ardından Altın Orda Hanlığı’nın Doğu Avrupa’dan Türkistan’a kadar uzanan sahada kurduğu idarenin içinde yer alan Kefe aynı dönemde İtalyan kolonizasyonu ile tanıştı. Altın Orda’dan yerleşme izni almak suretiyle Kefe’ye gelen Cenevizliler (1266 yılı civarı) Altın Orda’nın zayıflamasından istifade ederek buraya hâkim oldular. İstanbul’dan Hazar ötesine uzanan büyük ticarî faaliyetin merkezi haline gelen ve merkez Cenova tarafından tayin edilen bir podesta tarafından yönetilen Kefe, Ceneviz hâkimiyetinden sonra Kırım yarımadasının en büyük şehri haline geldi. Yarımadanın ticarî faaliyetinin en büyük kaynağı Asya’dan Astarhan’a, oradan Azak ve Taman kanalıyla Kırım yarımadasına ulaşan büyük ticaret yolu idi (Turan, s. 67 vd.).
1330’lu yıllarda Kefe’yi gören İbn Battûta buranın halkının çoğunluğunu Cenevizliler’in teşkil ettiğini, ancak müslümanlara ait mescidlerin de bulunduğunu, limanının yaklaşık 200 gemi alabilecek kapasitede olduğunu yazar (Seyahatnâme , I, 358-359). Cenevizliler şehri tahkim etmişler ve 1341-1348 yılları arasında kuvvetli surlarla çevirmişlerdi. 1383-1386 yıllarında şehir sur dışında büyüyünce eklenen varoş kesimine dış surlar yapılmıştı. 1420’lere doğru Kefe’de müslüman nüfus yoğunluğu arttı, şehir daha da kozmopolit bir özellik kazandı. Bu sıralarda şehirde yaklaşık 40.000 kişinin yaşadığı tahmin edilmektedir.
Altın Orda’nın parçalanması üzerine ortaya çıkan Kırım Hanlığı’nın kurucusu I. Hacı Giray, 1434 yılında Cenevizliler’i ağır bir bozguna uğrattıktan sonra onlarla yaptığı antlaşmada Kefe’nin hukukî bakımdan hâkimi oldu. Hacı Giray zamanında Kefe Cenevizlileri’ne karşı Kırım Hanlığı ve Osmanlı Devleti ittifak içinde bulundular. Fâtih Sultan Mehmed İstanbul’u fethederek Ceneviz’in Kuzey ve Güney Karadeniz’deki kolonileriyle bağlantısını kesti. Amasra’dan Trabzon’a uzanan sahil şeridinin zaptı ile Kefe’deki Cenevizliler tecrit edilmiş bir duruma düştüler.
Hacı Giray’ın vefatının (1466) ardından Kırım Hanlığı’nın büyük bir iç mücadeleye sahne olması, bundan faydalanan Cenevizliler’in hanlık üzerinde yoğun baskı kurması, hanlığın yönetiminde gerçek gücü temsil eden kabilelerin Osmanlı Devleti ile temasa geçmesine yol açtı. Fâtih Sultan Mehmed ile Kırım Karaçi beylerinden Eminek arasındaki temaslar sonunda Osmanlı Devleti Kırım sahillerinin zaptı için davet edildi, söz konusu harekâtın gerçekleşmesi halinde Kefe’nin Osmanlı hâkimiyetine bırakılacağı kararlaştırıldı (Öztürk, s. 25). Fâtih Sultan Mehmed, Gedik Ahmed Paşa’yı 100 parçalık bir donanma ile Kefe seferine gönderdi, harekât sonunda Kefe ile beraber bütün sahil şeridi fethedildi (Safer 880 / Haziran 1475). Kefe ve bağlı şehirlerin fethi Kuzey Karadeniz’in güç dengelerinde değişiklikler meydana getirdi. Kırım Hanlığı himaye altına alındı. Batıdan doğuya Sarıkirman, İnkerman, Mengub, Şuma, Demirci, Uluüzen, Üsküt, Üzen, Arpadi, Ayayorin, Taşlı, Soğuksu, Otuzlar köylerinden Sarıgöl’e doğru uzanan hat Osmanlı-Kırım sınırlarını teşkil etti ve bu şeritte Kefe sancak beyliği kuruldu (a.g.e. , s. 101 vd.).
Fetihten itibaren Kefe, Osmanlı’nın kuzey politikasının başlıca ana üssü haline geldi. Kırım Hanlığı’nın sürekli kontrol edilmesinde ve Osmanlı-Rus ilişkilerinin yürütülmesinde en büyük rolü üstlenen şehir, II. Bayezid’in oğlu Şehzade Mehmed ve Yavuz Sultan Selim’in oğlu Süleyman’ın şahsında şehzade sancağı haline geldi; II. Bayezid ve oğlu Selim arasında cereyan eden iktidar mücadelesinde Selim’in güç aldığı bir merkez oldu. Ruslar’ın Kazan (1552) ve Astarhan’ın (1556) işgalinden sonra Karadeniz sahillerine ulaşmaları şehrin siyasî önemini arttırdı. 1569 Astarhan seferi bizzat Kefe beyi tarafından yürütüldü. Kefe 1578’den itibaren başlayıp aralıklarla 1639’a kadar süren Osmanlı-İran savaşlarında Rumeli sancaklarından doğu cephesine yapılan sevkiyatın ana üssü özelliği kazandı ve bu dönemlerde eyalet merkezi konumuna yükseldi.
Osmanlı idarî sistemine geçmesinin ardından sancak haline getirilen Kefe’nin merkez olduğu bölgede XVI. yüzyılda Mengub, Suğdak (Sudak), Kerç, Azak ve Taman adlı beş kaza mevcuttu. Kaza statüsünde bulunmayan Balıklagu (Balıklava) ve İnkerman da Mengub’a bağlı eski tarihi olan önemli şehirlerdi.
Bu dönemde şehrin fizikî şeması, ana hatlarıyla Osmanlı öncesinde teşekkül etmiş olan Venedik ve Ceneviz izlerini taşıyordu. Şehir İçkale (Frenkhisarı), Dışkale ve Toprakkale olmak üzere üç kısımdan oluşuyordu. 1520’de İçkale’de on mahalle bulunmaktaydı ve nüfus bakımından kalabalık olanları Mercan Ağa Mescidi, Çeneli Mescidi, Hoca Câfer Mescidi, Atçı Mahmud Mescidi ve Hacı Kişver Mescidi mahalleleri teşkil ediyordu. Dışkale’de on sekiz mahalle vardı. En büyük mahalle Hatun Mescidi adını taşıyordu. Toprakkale’de ise on bir mahalle mevcuttu. 1542’de İçkale’de on dokuz mahalle bulunmaktaydı. Toprakkale kısmı şehrin varoşunu oluşturduğundan burada 1520 yılına nisbetle bazı önemli değişiklikler olmuş, mahalle sayısı yedi olarak tesbit edilmiştir. Bunun sebebi Dışkale’nin nüfus bakımından büyümesi ve varoştaki bir kısım mahalleleri de içine almasıdır. Rum, Ermeni, Rus, Çerkez ve yahudilerden oluşan gayri müslimlerden Rum ve Ermeniler’e ait on dört mahalle yer alıyordu. Rus, Çerkez, yahudi ve 1542’de varlıkları tesbit edilen Trabzonlu cemaati ise topluluk şeklinde herhangi bir mahalle adı belirtilmeksizin kaydedilmişti. Gayri müslim unsurlar Dışkale’de yaşıyorlardı. 1520’de müslümanlar 5650, Ermeniler 7360, Rumlar 2760, diğerleri 730 dolayında nüfusa sahiptiler. 1547’de özellikle müslüman nüfusta artış olduğu ve müslümanların en kalabalık topluluğu oluşturduğu dikkati çeker. 7420 dolayına ulaşan bu nüfusa karşılık Ermeniler’in 5780, Rumlar’ın 2400, diğerlerinin ise 700 dolayında nüfusu vardı. Genel nüfusta belirli bir düşüş olmakla beraber müslüman sayısındaki artış dışarıdan şehre yönelik göçlerin bir sonucu olmalıdır. Kefe bu durumunu XVI. yüzyıl boyunca korudu. XVII. yüzyılda nüfusu biraz daha arttı. Yüzyılın ortalarında burada 4000 hâne (20.000 kişi) tesbit edilmişti. Evliya Çelebi müslümanların seksen mahallede oturduklarını yazar ve Ermeni, Rum, yahudi topluluklarıyla birlikte toplam mahalle sayısının 120’ye ulaştığını belirtir. Şehirdeki toplam hâne sayısını 9060 olarak verir. Fakir Tatarlar’ın topraklı varoşta çadırlarda yaşadıklarına da temas eder. Ona göre burada on büyük cami, elli mescid, 1010 dükkân, kırk üç han vardı. Büyük camiler içinde Şehzade Süleyman Camii, Müftü Camii, Yenicami, Gölbaşı Camii, Tâcir Hacı Nebi Camii, Kulekapısı Camii’nin adlarını sayar (Seyahatnâme , VII, 673 vd.). Şehirde 167 dalda üretim yapan meslek grupları faaliyet gösteriyordu, fakat özellikle ticarî faaliyetler ön plandaydı.
Kefe’nin bir ticaret şehri olması dolayısıyla çok işlek limanı, iskelesi ve gümrüğü bulunmaktaydı. Kefe Gümrüğü Osmanlı Devleti’nin dört gümrük bölgesinden biriydi (An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire , s. 196). Kefe’de Osmanlı klasik sisteminin temelini teşkil eden timar mevcut değildi. Bunun yerine XVI. yüzyıla kadar emanet, daha sonra iltizam usulüyle işletilen mukātaa sistemi vardı. Kırım hanlarının sâlyâneleri dahil olmak üzere sancağın askerî ve idarî personeline yıllık ve üç yıllık zamanlara göre oluşturulan sancak bütçelerine göre maaş veriliyordu. Kefe’nin kefevî denilen ve değeri osmânî akçeye göre belirlenen parası mevcuttu. XVI. yüzyılın başlarında osmânî akçeye göre 1/2 olan kefevî akçe asrın sonlarına doğru 1/48’e gerilemişti. Piyasa ile resmî kurlar arasında üç katına yaklaşan farklar mevcuttu. Hassa tâcirleriyle piyasa tüccarı arasında sürekli bir rekabet mevcut olduğundan karaborsa sık karşılaşılan bir olgu idi (Öztürk, s. 287 vd.).
Azak ve Taman’dan Hazar’a kadar geniş bir hinterlandı olan Kefe, Deştikıpçak’ın hayvansal ürünlerinin İstanbul’a nakledildiği yer olmakla dikkat çeker. İstanbul’un yağ ihtiyacı büyük çapta buradan karşılanıyordu. Rusya içlerinden gelen kürklerle büyük bir ticarî değeri olan esirler de Kefe vasıtasıyla naklediliyordu. Sancak gelirleri arasında en büyük pay gümrüğe aitti. Anadolu ile Karadeniz şehirleri arasında kurulmuş bulunan çok yönlü örgütlü iktisadî ve ticarî ilişki Kefe vasıtasıyla Kuzey Karadeniz’i de ihtiva ediyor, Osmanlı iktisadî şebekesinin kuzey ayağı Kefe ve mülhakatına bağlı bulunuyordu. Kefe, Anadolu’nun yünlü ve pamuklulardan oluşan tekstil ürünlerini kuzeye, kuzeyin deri ve Azak denizinin zengin balık ürünlerini İstanbul’a ve Anadolu’ya ulaştıran antrepo durumundaydı.
XVII. yüzyılda Kefe sık sık Kazak ve Rus saldırılarına mâruz kaldı, bu yüzden kale surları birkaç defa tahkim edildi. Osmanlı-Rus savaşları sırasında Mayıs 1736’da Rus ordusunun saldırısına uğradı. Bu sebeple Kefe, Ruslar’a karşı oluşturulan Kırım seraskerliğinin ana üssü oldu. 1768 savaşı sırasında Ruslar tarafından işgal edildi (1771). Şehrin Türk ahalisi Kırım içlerine ve Anadolu’ya kaçtı. Bu esnada Kefe’nin nüfusu 20.000 dolayındaydı ve 50 kadar cami, elli altı kilise bulunuyordu. İkinci Rus saldırısı ve işgali 1777’de gerçekleşti ve Ruslar anlaşmaya rağmen Kefe’yi ellerinde tuttular. 1783’te Kefe kesin olarak Rus hâkimiyeti altına girdi. Bu sırada şehirde yirmi dokuz cami, on üç Rum, yirmi iki Ermeni kilisesi, 694’ü Türkler’e ait olmak üzere 813 evin mevcut olduğu tesbit edilmişti. II. Katerina şehrin adını Theodosia (Rusça Feodosia) olarak değiştirdi. Fakat Kefe adı kısa süre için de olsa kullanılmaya devam etti. Şehirdeki Türk nüfusu gerek gönüllü gerekse zorla göç ettirildi. Böylece Kefe kalabalık bir şehir olmaktan çıkıp harap bir taş yığını haline geldi. 1800’lerde burayı ziyaret eden Clarke, Rus yıkımına bizzat şahit olmuş, Kefe’de yalnız elli hâneden müteşekkil bir nüfus bulunduğunu belirtmiştir. Ruslar, ayrıca birçok cami ve mescidi yıkarak buradan elde ettikleri kurşunu silâh ve teçhizat imalinde kullandılar (Clarke, s. 329 vd.).
XIX. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru nüfus yavaş da olsa artış gösterdi. 1897’de şehirde 27.238 kişinin yaşadığı tesbit edilmiştir. Bunun ancak 3000 kadarını Kırım Türkleri oluşturuyordu. II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında Almanlar tarafından işgal edilen Kefe bugün Ukrayna’ya bağlı 80.900 nüfusa sahip (1998 tah.) bir gıda sanayi merkezi (özellikle balık konserveciliği), balıkçılık limanı ve sayfiye şehridir. Kefe’de tarihî surların bir bölümü hâlâ ayaktadır. Ayrıca Osmanlı döneminden kalma birkaç cami bugüne ulaşmıştır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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BA, KK , nr. 2283, 5280.
İbn Battûta, Seyahatnâme , I, 358-359.
İbn Kemal, Tevârîh-i Âl-i Osmân , VII, 384-385.
Evliya Çelebi, Seyahatnâme , VII, 671-684.
J. Chardin, Voyages , Amsterdam 1701, I, 104.
W. Eton, A Survey of the Turkish Empire , London 1782, s. 328-329 vd.
Halim Giray, Gülbün-i Hânân (nşr. M. Sadi Çöğenli – Recep Toparlı), Erzurum 1990, tür.yer.
M. Bıjışkyan, Karadeniz Kıyıları Tarih Coğrafyası (trc. H. D. Andreasyan), İstanbul 1969, s. 97.
E. D. Clarke, Travels in Various Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa , New York 1970, s. 329 vd.
Oktay Aslanapa, Kırım ve Kuzey Azerbaycan’da Türk Eserleri , İstanbul 1979, s. 113-115.
A. Yu. Yakubovskiy, Altın Ordu ve Çöküşü (trc. Hasan Eren), Ankara 1992, s. 12.
V. E. Potekhin – D. V. Potekhin, Tavrida-Kırım , Simferopol 1994, s. 10.
An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire (ed. Halil İnalcık – Donald Quatert), Cambridge 1994, s. 196.
Halil İnalcık, Sources and Studies on the Ottoman Black Sea I the Customs Register of Caffa: 1487-1490 , Harvard 1995.
a.mlf., “Kırım”, İA , VI, 751.
Şerafettin Turan, Türkiye-İtalya İlişkileri I , Ankara 2000, s. 67 vd.
Yücel Öztürk, Osmanlı Hakimiyetinde Kefe: 1475-1600 , Ankara 2000.
Abdullahoğlu Hasan, “Ceneviz Menbalarına Göre XV. Asır Kırım Hanlığı”, AYB , I/10 (1932), s. 336-337, 376.
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Mirza Bala, “Kırım”, İA , VI, 745.
Cengiz Orhonlu, “Kefe”, EI2 (İng.) , IV, 868-870.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2002 yılında Ankara’da basılan 25. cildinde, 182-184 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.