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KEŞMİR Skip to content Hint alt kıtasının kuzeyinde coğrafî bir bölge.
Arapça kaynaklarda Keşmîr ve Kaşmîr şeklinde geçen Sanskrit kökenli ismi Batlamyus Kaspeiria, 631’de burayı ziyaret eden Çinli seyyah Hiuen Tsiang, Kiashimilo yazılışlarıyla verir; yerli halk ise bölgeye Keşîr demektedir. Keşmir aslında Himalayalar’ın kuzeybatı kesiminde bulunan, 135 km. uzunluğa ve 32-40 km. genişliğe sahip verimli bir vadinin adı iken zamanla 222.236 km2 yüzölçümlü bir bölgeyi kapsamına almıştır. Bölgenin 78.114 km2 ’si Pakistan’ın elinde bulunmaktadır. Bunun 11.639 km2 ’lik bölümü Âzad Keşmir eyaletini teşkil eder (nüfusu 3.210.000, 1998 tah.). 42.685 km2 ’lik bölümü Çin’in hâkimiyetinde olan bölgenin Hindistan’a ait bölümü ise 101.307 km2 ’lik Cammû-Keşmir eyaletini meydana getirir (nüfusu 10.069.917, 2001). Âzad Keşmir’in merkezi Muzafferâbâd, Cammû-Keşmir’in merkezi ise Srinagar’dır.
Keşmir’in tarihi büyük Hint Kralı Aşoka ile (m.ö. 269-232) başlatılır. Bölgenin bilinen daha sonraki tarihi ise milâttan sonra 78-248 yılları arasında hüküm süren ve Orta Hindistan’a kadar hâkimiyetini kabul ettiren Orta Asya’daki Kuşana İmparatorluğu dönemine aittir. IV-V. yüzyıllarda Gupta İmparatorluğu’nun hâkimiyet alanına giren bölge, VI. yüzyıldan itibaren bu devleti yıkan Akhunlar’ın (Eftalit) saldırılarına mâruz kaldı. VII. yüzyılın ilk yarısında güçlü bir devlet kurarak Hindistan’da tekrar millî birliği sağlayan İmparator Harşa’nın (606-647) eline geçtiyse de Harşa burayı kendi haline bıraktı ve onun çekilmesinden sonra ortaya bazı küçük krallıklar çıktı.
Hindistan’a İslâmiyet’in girişi VIII. yüzyılda başlamakla birlikte (DİA , XVIII, 76) Keşmir’in müslümanlaşması çok sonra gerçekleşmiştir. 714’te Mültan’ı fetheden Muhammed b. Kāsım es-Sekafî Keşmir’i de almak istemiş, fakat vadiye giremeden geri dönmüştü. Emevî valileri Cüneyd el-Mürrî ile Amr et-Tağlibî’nin fetihleri de Arap coğrafyacılarının Dış Keşmir dedikleri, bölgenin dağlık güney, güneydoğu ve batı kesimleriyle sınırlı kaldı. Bu dönemde Keşmir’de hâkim bulunan Karkota hânedanından Lalidatidya Muktapide (724-761) Arap ilerlemesini durdurmak için Çinliler’le ittifak yaptı. Bunun ardından Keşmir sırasıyla Utpala ve Lahora hânedanları tarafından yönetildi. Gazneli Mahmud 1015 ve 1021’de iki defa burayı zaptetme girişiminde bulunduysa da -Büyük İskender gibi- bölgenin zor tabiat şartlarını aşamadı ve geri dönmek zorunda kaldı. Uzun bir süre topraklarına yabancıların, özellikle de müslümanların girmesine karşı koyan Keşmirliler daha sonra kendi güvenliklerini arttırmak için paralı Türk askeri tutmaya başladılar. Önce Lahora hânedanından Harşa (1089-1101) birkaç yüz Türk asker ve kumandanını maiyetinde görevlendirdi.
Keşmir’deki Hindu idaresine ilk öldürücü müslüman darbesi 1320’de Moğol-Çağatay kumandanı Zulcu tarafından vuruldu. Bu tarihte 70.000 kişilik ordusuyla Keşmir vadisine giren Zulcu sekiz ay kadar bölgede kaldı ve her yeri yağmaladı. Zulcu’nun ayrılmasının ardından hükümran olan Kral Rincana kendisine Şah Mîr Sevâtî adında bir müslümanı vezir yaptı. Şah Mîr, bir müddet sonra Bülbül Şah lakabıyla tanınan Seyyid Şerîfüddin adındaki bir Sühreverdiyye dervişi vasıtasıyla kralın ihtida etmesini sağladı. Sadreddin unvanını alan Kral Rincana’nın 1323’te ölümü üzerine eşi Kota Rani idareyi üstlendi ve Şah Mîr’in yardımıyla o sıralarda Keşmir’i işgal eden Moğollar’ı topraklarından çıkardı. Fakat ardından Kota Rani, Şah Mîr’i etkisiz kılma teşebbüsünde bulununca Şah Mîr yönetime el koydu ve Şemseddin unvanıyla sultan oldu (1338-1342). Onun kurduğu, iki asırdan fazla hüküm süren hânedandan Sultan Şehâbeddin (1354-1373) vadideki Hindu kabilelerini kendisine bağlayarak hâkimiyetini sağlamlaştırdı ve ardından Gilgit, Baltistan ve Dardistan ile Pencap’taki bazı dağlık kesimleri fethetti. Bunun oğlu Sultan Kutbüddin (1373-1389) babasının kurduğu idareyi güçlendirdi. Torunu Sultan İskender ise (1389-1413) Delhi’yi yağmalayan Timur’un Keşmir’e girmesini önledi. Bu dönemde İran topraklarından kaçan çok sayıda mülteci Keşmir’e sığındı; bunlar zamanla idarenin İran tesirine girmesine yol açtılar. İskender’in oğlu Zeynelâbidîn (1420-1470) uzun süre devlete hükmetti. Hânedanın iktidar sahibi son sultanı Hasan Şah’tır (1472-1484). Onun ardından gelen sultanlar zamanında rakip kabileler arasında başlayan güç mücadeleleri devletin otoritesini sarstı. 1540’ta Bâbür Şah’ın yeğeni Haydar Mirza Duğlat önemli bir direnişle karşılaşmadan Keşmir’e girdi ve hânedanı himayesi altına aldı. Onun 1551’de öldürülmesinden sonra hâkimiyet Şiî Gazi Han Çak hânedanına geçti. 1586’da Bâbürlü Sultanı Ekber Şah Keşmir’i topraklarına katarak bir eyalet haline getirdi. 1752’de Ahmed Şah Dürrânî güçlü bir ordu ile buraya girdi; böylece Afganlılar’ın başlattığı son müslüman hâkimiyeti, 1819’da bölgenin Sih mihracesi Ranjit Singh’in eline geçmesine kadar devam etti.
Keşmir’de İslâmiyet’in yayılmasını ve İslâm kültürünün bölgeye yerleşmesini büyük ölçüde, XIV. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru buraya gelmeye başlayan Mîr Seyyid Ali Hemedânî ve oğlu Mîr Seyyid Muhammed gibi Kübrevî şeyhleriyle Beyhakī Seyyidleri etkiledi. Bu yolla bölgede yeşeren tasavvuf kültürü, yerli halk geleneğiyle de etkileşerek bölgeye has bir tasavvuf ekolünün ortaya çıkmasına zemin hazırladı. Şeyh Nûreddin Rişhi’nin başlattığı bu ekolün mensupları Hindular gibi et yemiyor, nefsi ıslah üzerinde duruyor ve hatta bazıları hiç evlenmiyordu. Rişhi tarikatına mensup müridler Hindu köylerine yerleşerek yaşadıkları benzer hayat tarzlarıyla halkın İslâm’a ilgi duymasını sağladılar. Keşmir’de Sühreverdiyye etkisiyle Şiî İslâm anlayışı da yaygınlık kazandı. Burada yaşayan önemli Şiî tebliğcilerinin başında, 1481’den 1486’ya kadar Sultan Hüseyin Baykara’nın elçisi olarak Keşmir’de bulunan ve bu sürede Nurbahşiyye tarikatının yanı sıra gizliden gizliye İsnâaşeriyye Şiîliği’nin yayılmasına da çalışan Mîr Şemseddin Irâkī gelir. 1501’de Keşmir’e dönen Mîr Şemseddin vefatına kadar (1526) Srinagar’da yaşamış, bu arada birçok Budist köyünün İslâmlaşması’nda etkili olmuştur. Daha sonra Bâbürlü fethinin ardından Semerkant’tan gelip Keşmir’e yerleşen Nakşibendî şeyhi Hâce Hâvend Mahmûd Lâhûrî (ö. 1052/1642) ile onun arkasından oğlu Muînüddin’in önderliğinde Sünnî anlayışın yayılması için faaliyet başlatıldı. Bunların takipçisi olan Şeyh Ahmed-i Sirhindî, Muhammed Sâdık Hemedânî Keşmîrî, Şeyh Mehdî Ali ve Hacı Yûsuf Keşmîrî gibi tanınmış müridleri bu faaliyeti sürdürdüler. Keşmir’e göç eden Kādirî şeyhlerinden Molla Şah Muhammed Bedahşî de (ö. 1071/1661) Bâbürlü şehzadesi olan müridi Dârâ Şükûh’un belirttiğine göre Keşmir’de Sünnî İslâm anlayışının yaygınlaşmasında önemli rol oynamıştır.
Keşmir’in müslüman idarecileri de daha öncekiler gibi mimariye önem vermişler, yeni şehirler kurup çeşitli yapılar ve sulama kanalları inşa ettirmişlerdir. Bunların en önemlileri Sultan Zeynelâbidîn’in annesinin türbesi, Şah Hemedânî Camii, Srinagar Cuma Camii, Hari Prabat Kalesi, Molla Şah Camii ve Hadratbal Şah Cihan Camii ile Şalimar, Nişâdbağ, Nesîmbağ, Çeşme-i Şâhî Car Cenar ve Açabal bahçeleridir. Ekber Şah’ın saray tarihçisi Ebü’l-Fazl’a göre Keşmirliler hat sanatında da büyük gelişme kaydetmişlerdir. Ekber Şah, Keşmirli Muhammed Hüseyin adlı bir hattata “altın kalem” unvanını vermiştir.
Sih hâkimiyeti döneminde pek çok caminin ibadete kapatılması, bazı yerlerde ezan okunmasının yasaklanması ve büyük çoğunluğunu müslümanların oluşturduğu halka ağır vergiler konulması, Leknev civarında İslâmî ıslah hareketini başlatan Seyyid Ahmed-i Birîlvî’yi Keşmir ve Pencap’ı kurtarmak için Sihler’e karşı savaş açmaya sevketti (Aralık 1830). Fakat Seyyid Ahmed katıldığı bir çarpışmada şehid düştü (6 Mayıs 1831). Bu olaydan sekiz yıl sonra Sih Krallığı dağıldı ve Gulab Sing adında bir Hindu kumandanı İngilizler’in Pencap’ı almasına yardım ettiği için onların himayesinde Keşmir’e hâkim oldu; daha sonra da 7,5 milyon rupi karşılığında mihrace unvanıyla Cammû-Keşmir bölgesinin hâkimiyetini tamamen ele geçirdi (1846). 1891’de Keşmir’de yapılan ilk sayıma göre büyük çoğunluğu müslüman olmak üzere nüfus 814.241 idi. Bu rakam 1921’de 1.407.086’ya yükselmişti. 1924’te İngiliz genel valisinin Keşmir’e yaptığı seyahat sırasında, çoğunluğu teşkil etmelerine rağmen ezilen müslümanların önderleri kapalı camilerin ibadete açılması ve toprak mülkiyeti haklarının geri verilmesi için müracaatta bulundular. Bu taleplere yönelik herhangi bir olumlu adım atılmadığı gibi müracaat edenlerin bir kısmı cezalandırılarak mallarına el konuldu. Bu dönemde özellikle Aligarh Üniversitesi’nde tahsil görmüş Keşmirli gençler Srinagar’da siyasî faaliyetlere başladılar. Bunlardan Şeyh Abdullah yaptığı konuşmalarla halkın harekete geçmesini sağladı. 1931’de Srinagar halkı polisin ateş açarak yirmi bir kişiyi öldürmesini protesto etmek için sokaklara döküldü. Böylece başlayan siyasî şuurlanma neticesinde mihracelik yönetimine karşı Ekim 1932’de Cammû-Keşmir Müslüman Konferansı’nın kurulduğu açıklandı ve başkanlığına Şeyh Abdullah seçildi. Daha sonra Keşmir’deki bütün dinî-millî grupların ortak bir cephe oluşturmasına karar verildi ve 1939’da Keşmir Millî Konferansı teşekkül etti. Mayıs 1946’da Şeyh Abdullah, mihracenin İngilizler’le yaptığı antlaşmanın geçersiz olduğunu ileri sürerek onun Keşmir yönetiminden ayrılması gerektiğini söyledi; ancak eğer halk isterse Cammû’da idaresini sürdürebilecekti. Bunun üzerine Şeyh Abdullah ve arkadaşları tutuklandılar. Bu sırada Hindistan’ın bağımsızlığı için İngilizler’le görüşmeler yapmakta olan Nehru, Şeyh Abdullah ve arkadaşlarının serbest bırakılması için müzakereleri yarıda kesti. Ancak o da Keşmir sınırında tutuklandı; fakat ardından serbest bırakılarak mahkemede Şeyh Abdullah’ın avukatlığını yapmasına izin verildi. 1944’te Keşmir’e gelen Hindistan Müslümanları Birliği’nin lideri Muhammed Ali Cinnah da buradaki müslümanları ülkelerinin bağımsızlığı için Müslüman Konferansı çatısı altında mücadele etmeye çağırmıştı.
15 Ağustos 1947’de Hindistan ve Pakistan devletlerinin kurulmasından sonra İngiliz himayesindeki 500 kadar irili ufaklı nizamlık, nevvâblık, prenslik, mihracelik ve krallık nüfus yoğunluğu, dinî ve etnik yapı, coğrafî konum gibi özelliklerine ve halklarının arzularına göre bu iki devletten birine katılmaları veya bağımsızlığı seçmeleri hususunda serbest bırakıldılar. Bunlardan biri olan Cammû-Keşmir Mihraceliği’nin 1941 sayımına göre toplam 4.021.616 kişilik nüfusunun 3 milyonu müslüman, 809.000’i Hindu idi ve bu durum mihraceyi tercih açısından sıkıntıda bırakıyordu. Önce Punç ve Mirpûr müslümanları ayaklandılar. Arkasından 22 Ekim 1947’de Pakistan’ın Kuzeybatı Serhad eyaletinden gelen gruplar Keşmir’i kurtarmak istediler; ancak mihracenin kuvvetleri onları durdurdu. Çatışmaların devam etmesi üzerine mihrace Hindistan Başbakanı Nehru’dan yardım istedi; İngiliz genel valisi Lord Mountbatten, bu yardımın ancak Cammû-Keşmir’in Hindistan’a katılmasıyla mümkün olabileceğini belirtince 26 Ekim 1947’de katılım antlaşmasını imzaladı. Bu arada Lord Mountbatten, Keşmir’in nihaî tercih meselesinin işgalcilerin çekilmesinden sonra yeniden ele alınacağını belirtti. Antlaşmanın imzalanmasının ardından Hindistan birlikleri Srinagar’a girdiler; bu sırada çatışmalar Pakistan topraklarına da sıçradı. Hindistan hükümeti 1 Ocak 1948’de Birleşmiş Milletler Güvenlik Konseyi’ne başvuruda bulunarak Pakistan’ın işgalcilere yardım ettiğini ileri sürdü; Pakistan ise bu iddialara şiddetle karşı çıktı. Nihayet 1 Ocak 1949’da Birleşmiş Milletler gözetiminde taraflar arasında ateşkes antlaşması imzalandı; fakat antlaşmanın çarpışan kuvvetlerin Keşmir’den çekilmesini isteyen ikinci bölümü hiçbir zaman uygulanmadı. Birleşmiş Milletler 5 Ocak 1949’da yeni bir kararla halk oylaması konusuna açıklık getirdi.
Ateşkes hattının belirlenmesinden sonra Cammû kesimindeki Âzad Keşmir bölgesinin varlığı Birleşmiş Milletler’in ilgili komisyonu tarafından kabul edildi. Ancak Hindistan yetkilileri buraya Pakistan işgali altındaki Keşmir derken Pakistanlılar da Hindistan’ın Cammû-Keşmir eyaletini Hindistan işgali altındaki topraklar olarak tanımlamaya başladılar. 1947 sonrasında hapishaneden çıkarılarak başbakanlığa getirilen Şeyh Abdullah, bağımsızlık arayışları yüzünden 9 Ağustos 1953’te Hint yetkililerince tekrar tutuklandı ve başbakanlığa Bahşî Gulâm Muhammed tayin edildi. 1963’te Bahşî Gulâm, Muhammed Nehru’nun yeni düzenlemelerine zemin hazırlamak üzere görevinden ayrıldı. Aynı yıl Hindistan Parlamentosu, Cammû-Keşmir yönetiminden devlet başkanlığı statüsünü kaldırarak yerine eyalet valiliğini getirdi; başbakanlık da bakanlığa dönüştürüldü. Nisan 1964’te Şeyh Abdullah serbest bırakıldı ve Nehru tarafından Keşmir meselesini görüşmek üzere Pakistan’a gönderildi; fakat iki ay sonra Nehru’nun ölümü üzerine geri çağrıldı. Bu arada Keşmir meselesi yüzünden Pakistan ve Hindistan arasında 1965 ve 1971’de iki büyük savaş yaşandı. Ocak 1975’te Şeyh Abdullah yirmi iki yıllık aradan sonra bakan sıfatıyla tekrar Keşmir’in idaresini eline aldı ve Eylül 1982’deki ölümüne kadar bu görevde kaldı.
Şeyh Abdullah’ın ölümünün ardından görevini devralan oğlu Fâruk’un uygulamaları ve Hindistan ile yürüttüğü ilişkiler Keşmirliler tarafından tasvip edilmeyerek kendisine hain gözüyle bakılmasına ve sonuçta görevinden ayrılmasına yol açtı. Ocak 1990’dan itibaren Keşmirli müslümanlar Hindistan’ın bölgeyi terketmesi için gittikçe yoğunlaşan silâhlı bir mücadele başlattı; çıkan çatışmalarda Hint askerleri binlerce Keşmirli’yi öldürdü. 1990’dan beri meydana gelen çatışmalarda ölenlerin sayısı bildirilmeyenlerin dışında 50.000’den fazladır ve en az bir o kadar Keşmirli’nin de mülteci olarak başka ülkelere gittiği hesaplanmaktadır. Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nin 1995 yılı insan hakları raporu, Hindistan kuvvetlerinin Cammû-Keşmir’deki siyasî katliamlarının sürdüğünü ifade etmektedir. Birleşmiş Milletler’in çeşitli kararlarına rağmen 1947’den beri halledilemeyen Keşmir meselesi, bugün de her an Pakistan ile Hindistan arasında savaş çıkmasına yol açabilecek durumdadır.
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2002 yılında Ankara’da basılan 25. cildinde, 325-327 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.