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KİTÂBÜ’l-HARÂC Skip to content Ebû Yûsuf’un (ö. 182/798) malî konular yanında, muâmelât, ceza, idare ve devletler hukuku kapsamına giren çeşitli meseleleri ele alan eseri.
Halife Hârûnürreşîd’in talebi üzerine hazırlandığı rivayet edilmekle birlikte kimliği zikredilmeyen bir halifeye yönelik bir hitapla başlamaktadır. Müellifin emîrü’l-mü’minînin kendisinden haraç, uşûr, sadaka (zekât), cevâlî gibi vergiler ve diğer hususlarda bilip uygulamakla mükellef olduğu kuralları ihtiva eden bir kitap hazırlamasını istediğine dair ifadelerinden halifenin vergi hukukunun kodifikasyonu arzusunu taşıdığı sonucu çıkarılabilir.
Hitabın ardından halifenin sorduğu yirmi altı sorunun cevaplandırıldığı otuz dokuz fasıllık ana metin gelmektedir. Fasılların hacimlerindeki orantısızlık dikkati çekmekte, ilk dönem fıkıh eserlerinin çoğunda olduğu gibi bu kitapta da ayrıca başlıksız alt bölüm veya kısımlar bulunmaktadır. Kısımlar arası geçişler, halife tarafından yöneltildiği anlaşılan bazı sorularla veya “kāle” ya da “kāle Ebû Yûsuf” şeklinde başlayan cevap kalıplarıyla yapılmaktadır. Genellikle fıkhî ihtilâflara temas edildikten sonra Ebû Yûsuf’un görüşlerine geçiş de aynı kalıpla gerçekleşmekte, bunların kullanımında eserin yazma ve baskıları arasında farklılıklar bulunması müstensihlerin tasarrufunu düşündürmektedir. Ayrıca soruların çoğundan önce bir bölüm başlığına da rastlanmaktadır.
Norman Calder, diğer bazı tesbitleri yanında “kāle” ve “kāle Ebû Yûsuf” kalıplarının kullanımına dayanarak eserin Ebû Yûsuf’un bizzat kendisi tarafından ve hatta o henüz hayattayken yazılmış olduğunun söylenemeyeceğini ileri sürmektedir. Ona göre kitabın Ebû Yûsuf’un telif ettiği orijinal nüshasını daha sonra Hassâf’ın redaksiyona tâbi tutarak kendisinden vergi hukuku üzerine bir eser hazırlamasını isteyen Abbâsî Halifesi Mühtedî-Billâh’a sunmuş olması da muhtemeldir. Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc ’ın, başkadı Ebû Yûsuf’un vergi hukuku sahasındaki görüşlerinin derlenmesiyle Hassâf tarafından oluşturulduğu ve Ebû Yûsuf’a atfen şöhret bulduğu dahi ileri sürülebilir. Halbuki Yahyâ b. Âdem’in Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc ’ında olduğu gibi “kāle Yahyâ” benzeri kalıplara özellikle ilk telif eserlerde sık rastlanmaktadır. Bu da genellikle ya eserleri rivayet için icâzet alan talebelerin nakil üslûbundan ya müelliflerin tevazuundan yahut müstensihlerin tasarrufundan kaynaklanmaktadır. Ebû Yûsuf’a ait İḫtilâfü Ebî Ḥanîfe ve İbn Ebî Leylâ ’da “kāle” ve “kāle Ebû Yûsuf” kalıpları aynen tekrarlanmakla birlikte bu eseri Muhammed b. Hasan eş-Şeybânî’nin rivayet ettiği bilinmektedir. Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc ’ın da Şeybânî tarafından rivayet edildiği düşünülebilir. Birincisine ilâvelerde bulunduğu bilinen Şeybânî’nin ikinciye bazı eklemeler yapmış olması da ihtimal dahilindedir. Ayrıca bu arada iki eserin çeşitli bölümlerinde tamamen aynı veya benzer ifadelerin bulunduğu kaydedilmelidir. Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc ’ın Ebû Yûsuf’un diğer bazı eserlerinin râvisi Bişr b. Velîd el-Kindî veya Kitâbü’l-Âs̱âr ’ının râvisi oğlu Yûsuf tarafından rivayet edilmiş olması da muhtemeldir.
Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc ’ın muhtevası özetle şöyledir: Ganimetin tarifi, taksimi ve humusla ilgili ahkâmın ele alındığı birinci bölümü fey ve haraca ilişkin izahata yer verilen ikinci bölüm takip etmektedir. Sonraki bölümlerde Sevâd, Şam (Suriye), Cezîre (Yukarı Mezopotamya), Arabistan yarımadası, Basra ve Horasan topraklarının fetih şekli, statüsü, buralardaki iktâ ve ihyâü’l-mevât uygulamaları vergi hukukuyla bağlantılı olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Mısır topraklarının ve oradaki vergilerin durumuna kısa bile olsa bir atıfta bulunulmaması ilginçtir. Haraç ve öşürle ilgili teferruatın iç içe geçtiği çeşitli bölümlerden sonra sadakalarla (zekât) ilgili bölüm gelmektedir. Bunların ardından ilk bakışta birbiriyle ve kitabın muhtevasıyla alâkasız gibi görünen, ancak önceki bölümlerin hepsinin topraklarla bağlantısı bulunduğu düşünüldüğünde mukabil bir genel başlık olarak anlam kazanan sulara (müsâkāt akdi, şirb hakkı, suların ve bazı su ürünlerinin satımı, kiralanması ve bu bağlamda otlaklarla çayırlara) dair meselelerin hükümleri ele alınmaktadır. Zira tarım arazilerine ulaşan suların kaynağı, toprakların sulanabilirliği ve su ürünlerinin cinsi vergilendirmeyle ilişkilidir. Ardından vergi tahsil politikalarıyla ilgili uzunca bir bölüm gelmektedir. Eser, cizye ve gümrük vergileriyle bağlantılı olarak bunları ödemekle mükellef zimmî ve harbîlerin hukukî statüleri çerçevesinde zimmîler, vatandaşlık, devletler ve kamu haklarına tecavüz suçları kapsamında ceza hukukuna ilişkin meseleleri irdeleyen bölümlerle sona ermektedir. Ayrıca son bölümlerin arasına vergilerin toplanması ve kamu düzeninin sağlanmasından sorumlu olan tahsildarlar ve kadıların maaşlarının kaynağıyla ilgili bir bölüm sıkıştırılmıştır. Yer yer bölümler arasında kopukluk veya kesişme gözlenmesi, zaman zaman tekrarlara rastlanması Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc ’ın tertibindeki zaafa işaret edebilirse de bilindiği kadarıyla henüz bu sahadaki ikinci eser olduğu ve halifenin sorularına bağımlı bir çerçeve çizilmesinin zorunluluğu göz önüne alındığında çok başarılı bile sayılabilir.
Esas itibariyle isminden ve muhtevasından da anlaşıldığı üzere eserin bütünü dar anlamda toprak ve vergi hukukuna, geniş anlamda ise kamu maliyesine ilişkindir. Ancak bu kapsamın dışına taşan hükümler göz önüne alındığında devlet idaresini amaç edindiği görülen eser, kamu maliyesiyle bağlantılı olarak yapılan siyaset ve toplumsal hayata dair değerlendirmeleri açısından da önemlidir.
Müellif, Hz. Peygamber’in uygulamalarına sıkça atıfta bulunması yanında sahâbe ve tâbiîn sözleriyle uygulamalarını da nakletmektedir. Ancak isnadlarında her zaman hadisçilerin titizliğini göstermemekte, “Kûfeli bazı âlimlerden”, “Kûfeli bazı şeyhlerden”, “bazı eski şeyhlerden”, “Medineli bazı şeyhlerden” vb. ifadelerle isim vermeden rivayette bulunmaktadır. Ayrıca Şâfiî, Mâlik, Leys b. Sa‘d gibi devrin meşhur imamlarının re’ylerini nakletmekte, varsa ihtilâflı görüşleri belirttikten sonra kendi ictihadlarını kaydetmektedir. Meselâ zekât gelirlerinin harcama kalemleri arasındaki yolda kalmış (ibnü’s-sebîl) kavramını yol yapım, bakım ve onarım faaliyetlerini de kapsayacak şekilde geniş bir tefsire tâbi tutması oldukça ilginçtir. Bazan hadislere dayanarak Ebû Hanîfe’nin görüşlerinden farklı sonuçlara vardığı veya muhalif görüşleri benimsediği de görülmektedir. Meselâ savaşa katılan süvariye ganimetten verilmesi gereken pay (s. 19-20), ölü toprakların ihyasında devlet başkanının izninin gerekli olup olmadığı (s. 69-70), amber ve inciden vergi alınıp alınmayacağı (s. 75-76), toprak mahsullerinden kesilecek vergi (s. 56-57), bir kimseyi yaralayan kişiye kısas uygulandıktan sonra mağdurun iyileşmesi ve suçlunun da kısas yarası sebebiyle vefat etmesi halinde buna diyet ödenip ödenmeyeceği (s. 173), savaş esnasında ele geçirilen düşman ölülerini onlara satmanın câiz olup olmadığı (s. 216), hurmalık ve diğer meyveliklerde, tarım arazilerinde ortakçılığın (müsâkāt ve muzâraa) cevazı gibi konularda hocasına muhalefet etmiştir (ayrıca bk. s. 96-99). Ebû Yûsuf’un diğer bazı fakihlerin görüşlerini Ebû Hanîfe’ninkilere tercih ettiğine de rastlanmaktadır. Nitekim hocasının, bir müslümanla zimmî arasında el değiştiren öşür arazisinin statüsü hususundaki ictihadına Hasan-ı Basrî ve Atâ’nın muhalif görüşlerini tercih etmiştir (s. 131).
Ebû Yûsuf’un Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc ’ı fıkhî yaklaşımı ön plana çıkarması, kendi müstakil ictihadlarına yer vermesi gibi özellikleri bakımından talebesi Yahyâ b. Âdem’in aynı adlı eserinden farklılık göstermektedir. Çünkü rivayet ağırlıklı olan ikincisinde müellifin hocalarına muhalefet etmekten çekindiği ve hemen hemen hiç ictihadda bulunmadığı görülmektedir. Bununla birlikte bu iki eserden birinin diğerine alternatif veya rakip olarak değerlendirilmesi yerine birbirini tamamladığını söylemek daha doğrudur.
Hukuk felsefesi açısından değerlendirildiğinde, Ebû Yûsuf’un ferdî haklarla kamu yararı çatıştığında ikincisini tercih ettiği ve sık sık alternatif ictihadlar arasından tercih yapma yetkisini halifeye bırakırken amme maslahatını gözetmesini şart koştuğu görülmektedir. Hz. Ömer’in haraç vergisi olarak belirlediği miktara bağlı kalmayıp onu günün şartlarına göre yeniden tesbit etmekte sakınca görmemesi gibi örnekler, zamanın değişmesiyle hükümlerin değişebileceğini bildiren küllî kaideye uygun davrandığını göstermektedir.
Tarihî perspektiften bakıldığında ise müellifin İslâmî fetihleri ve özellikle sınırların hızla genişlediği Hz. Ömer devri uygulamalarını gerekçeleriyle birlikte iyi bildiği anlaşılmaktadır. Fetihlerle ilgili rivayetlerine sık sık başvurduğu İbn İshak’tan bir ay kadar megāzî dersi almış olmasının da bunda payı bulunmalıdır. Eserin muhtevasına nisbetle gereksiz sayılabilecek birçok teferruatı aktarması, fetihlerle ilgili rivayetleri mümkün mertebe bir bütün halinde ve aynen nakletme titizliğinden olmalıdır.
Başkadı olması sebebiyle muhtemelen toprak ve vergi hukukunun kapsamına giren bazı davalarla ilgilenmek durumunda kalan Ebû Yûsuf ayrıca vergi defterlerine, devlet arşivlerine, aralarında üst düzey bürokratlar ve ulemânın da bulunduğu uzmanlara kolaylıkla ulaşabildiği, uygulamaları gözlemleyip yaşayan şahitleri celbetme yetkisini taşıdığı için meselelere vukufiyet kazanmıştı.
Eserde hissedilir bir ilmî ehliyet, mevcut materyale tam bir vukufiyet, tebaanın refahını sağlamaya mâtuf dengeli bir hassasiyet ve vergi sahasında nihaî kararları halifenin otoritesine bırakan bir tavır ortaya konmaktadır. Ayrıca fıkıh ve iktisat tarihine, özellikle de vergi hukuku tarihine dair oldukça aydınlatıcı bir çalışmadır. Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc ’da tasvir edilenin, esas itibariyle devrin siyasî gerçeklerini ve hükümetin sıkıntı ya da beklentilerini yansıtan bir vergi teorisi olduğunun tesbiti, araştırmacı veya eleştirmenlerin zihnini karıştıran bazı muğlaklıkların varlık sebebini açıklamaktadır.
Ebû Yûsuf, devletin toprak mahsullerinden maktû bir pay alması esasına dayalı mukāseme usulünü, her birim alandan (cerîb ) aynî ya da nakdî sabit bir vergi alması anlamına gelen mesâha usulüne tercih etmektedir. Zira ikincisine göre, ekim yapmasa veya yeterli verim almasa dahi maktû vergisini vermek zorunda olan köylü zaman zaman ödeme güçlüğüne düşmekte, buna gücü yetse bile yeni dönemde ekim yapacak malî kaynağı bulamamaktadır. Alan hesabıyla ödenecek vergiler yüzünden artan üretim masrafları karşılanamadığı için ölü toprakların ihyası da cazibesini kaybetmektedir. Ayrıca mesâha usulü, ödeme güçlüğü çeken köylülerin topraklarını bırakıp kaçması sebebiyle vergi gelirlerinin azalması, rekoltenin düşmesi, fiyatların artması gibi hem tebaa hem devlet aleyhine sonuçlanacak gelişmelere sebep olmaktadır. Ebû Yûsuf’a göre devlet arazileriyle sahipsiz ya da ölü toprakların işleme gücü bulunanlara iktâ edilmesi üretim artışı ve iktisadî refahın bir başka yoludur. İktâ politikası, toprakların bazı devlet erkânına veya yakınlarına peşkeş çekilmesi gibi keyfîlik ve suistimallere imkân vermemelidir. Ayrıca iktâ edilen topraklar üç yıl boyunca işlenmemesi halinde geri alınarak başkalarına verilmelidir.
Eserde devletin vergi politikasıyla ilgili olarak temel bazı esaslar getirilmektedir. Birincisi vergilendirmede tebaanın ödeme gücünün hesaba katılmasıdır (bu ilke, Ebû Yûsuf’un günümüzdeki şekliyle bir artan oranlı vergi politikası önerdiği anlamına gelmez). İkinci olarak vergiler merkezî hükümet tarafından belli bir standarda bağlanmalı, tahsildarların keyfî uygulama ve suistimallerine imkân bırakılmamalıdır. Vergi tarhında arazinin işlenebilirliği, sulanabilirliği, verimliliği, pazarlara yakınlığı gibi faktörler hesaba katılmalıdır. Vergi tahsil, nakliye, ölçüm, taksim, kayıt, evrak, posta masrafları mükelleflere yüklenmemelidir. Ayrıca vergi mükelleflerinin sömürülmesine zemin hazırlayan iltizam sistemi terkedilmeli ya da çok sıkı bir şekilde denetlenmelidir. Zohreh Ahghari, 1991 yılında The Florida State University’ye sunduğu doktora tezinde Ebû Yûsuf’un iltizam (Ar. takbîl, İng. taxfarming) sistemine muhalif olduğunu ifade etmek yerine yanlışlıkla çiftçiliğin vergilendirilmesine (tax on farming) karşı çıktığını söylemektedir. Üçüncüsü vergi tahsilinde tebaaya iyi muamele yapılması, mahsulün tarlada ya da harman yerinde bekletilerek zarar görmemesi için tahsilâtta gecikmeye müsamaha edilmemesidir. Dördüncüsü vergi tahsildarlarının iyi ahlâk sahibi kişiler arasından seçilmesi, yetkinin kötüye kullanılmasına fırsat verilmemesi, vukuunda ise derhal cezaî müeyyide uygulanmasıdır. Halife vergi tahsilinin denetimi için müfettişler ve divan mensubu askerî gözlemciler görevlendirmeli, gerektiğinde tebaanın devlet erkânıyla ilgili şikâyetlerine bakan mezâlim mahkemelerinde açılmış bazı davalarda hazır bulunmalıdır. Ayrıca rüşvete kapı açmamak için tahsildarların iâşesi devlet tarafından yeterince ve düzenli bir şekilde karşılanmalıdır. Vergi gelirlerinin sürekliliğini ya da artışını sağlamanın yollarından biri de sulama sistemlerinin, setlerin, drenaj kanallarının geliştirilmesi, bakım ve onarımıdır. Devlet, bazı durumlarda masrafları yüklenmese dahi hiç olmazsa bu yöndeki teşebbüsleri teşvik etmelidir. Bütün bunlardan anlaşıldığı kadarıyla Ebû Yûsuf devletin vergi politikasında âdil gelir dağılımı ve amme maslahatının gözetilmesine önem vermektedir. Vergi tahsilinde adaletin tesisi toprağın mâmur kalmasını sağlayarak üretim bolluğu ve dolayısıyla hem köylü hem devletin gelirlerinin artışıyla birlikte iktisadî refah getirecektir. Müellif bu arada hazinenin güçlenmesi, devletin bekası ve toplumun refahı için vergi gelirlerinin üretken yatırımlara dönüşmesini de teşvik etmektedir. Onun belirlediği bu esaslar yüzyıllar sonra Adam Smith’in adalet, kesinlik, uygunluk ve tasarruf şeklinde formülleştirdiği dört vergileme ilkesini çağrıştırmaktadır. Harcama kalemleri farklı olduğu için zekât ve haraç gelirlerinin birbirine karıştırılmaması gerektiğini söyleyen müellif, beytülmâlin halifenin ferdî çıkarları için değil kamu yararına sarfedilmesinin önemini ayrıca vurgulamaktadır.
Ebû Yûsuf’un devletin vergi politikaları bağlamında piyasa fiyatlarının teşekkülü ve narh uygulaması hususunda yaptığı yorum da çok ilginç olup çağdaş müslüman iktisatçıların dikkatini çekmiştir. Ona göre belli ölçüde buğday ya da buna bedel belli bir meblağ (dirhem) olmak üzere konan vergide sultanın, hazinenin ve aynı şekilde haraç mükelleflerinin birinden diğerine kaybı söz konusudur. Buğday fiyatında önceden vergiye esas olmak üzere biçilen mübadele fiyatına kıyasla fahiş bir ucuzluk olursa sultan buğday cinsinden konulan vergiyle yetinmez ve taban fiyatı mükelleflerin lehine indirmez, yani dirhem cinsinden tahsil eder. Çünkü düşük vergi gelirleriyle ordunun gücü korunamaz ve sınırlar muhafaza edilemez. Aşırı fiyat artışı durumunda ise sultan, taban fiyatla piyasa fiyatı arasındaki farktan kaynaklanan fazlalığı haraç mükelleflerine bırakmak istemez, yani buğdayın vergiye esas olan dirhem cinsinden mübadele değerini piyasa fiyatı seviyesine yükseltir. Bu tür suistimallere imkân bırakmaması açısından en ideal vergi türünün mukāseme olduğunu belirten Ebû Yûsuf, daha sonra vergi tahsilinde haraç mükelleflerine de sultana da zarar gelmemesi için âdil fiyat olarak vasıflandırdığı piyasa fiyatının esas alınmasını tavsiye etmekte, ayrıca verginin aynî veya nakdî olarak tahsili hususunda haraç mükelleflerinin fayda ve tercihinin gözetilmesini önermektedir (Abdülazîz b. Muhammed er-Rahbî, I, 340-357). Aslında konu bütünlüğü içinde ele alındığında Ebû Yûsuf’un bu görüşleri ve fiyatların düşmesi veya yükselmesinin sebebi konusunda söyledikleriyle vergi mükelleflerini korumaktan başka bir şey kastetmediği, taban fiyatlarla oynayarak üreticiyi ezebilen devlet başkanını ilâhî otorite ile karşı karşıya getirerek frenlemeye çalıştığı görülmektedir. Modern bazı araştırmacıların ileri sürdüğü gibi bu sözlerde ne bir fiyat politikası ne arz ve talep ne de fiyat esnekliği gibi modern teknik kavramlara net bir işaret vardır. Zira fiyatları tartışma konusu edilen ürün talebin fiyat esnekliği düşük olan buğdaydır. Kısa dönemde tarım ürünleri arzının esnekliği neredeyse sıfır, talebinin esnekliği ise düşüktür. Bu sebeple arzdaki değişmeler tarım ürünleri fiyatlarını geniş ölçüde etkiler. Ebû Yûsuf, Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc ’ını hazırladığında arz-talep kanunu ve fiyat mekanizmasıyla ilgili temel tesbitlerin yer aldığı Yunan felsefe eserleri henüz Arapça’ya tercüme edilmemişti. Bu sebeple bir yandan, “Bunun açıklaması uzun sürer” diyen müellifin diğer yandan, “O göklerin rabbinin işidir ve keyfiyeti de bilinmez” diyerek kendi içinde çelişkiye düşmesi tabiidir. Ayrıca eğer eser Hassâf tarafından redakte edilmiş olsaydı fiyatlarla ilgili yorumun, onun devrinde Arapça’ya çevrilmiş Yunan felsefe eserlerinin etkisiyle farklılaşması gerekirdi.
Dış ticarette de ümmetin menfaatlerinin gözetilmesi taraftarı olduğu anlaşılan Ebû Yûsuf, devletin stratejik öneme sahip at ve silâh gibi askerî levazımın düşman ülkelere ihracatını yasaklaması gerektiğini savunmaktadır.
Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc ilk önce tek bir yazmaya dayanılarak tahkiksiz bir şekilde neşredilmiştir (Bulak 1302). Daha sonra Bulak neşrine ve bir nüshaya (el-Hizânetü’t-Teymûriyye, Fıkıh, nr. 674) dayalı olup önceki gibi hatalarla dolu tahkikli bir baskı daha yapılmıştır (el-Matbaatü’s-Selefiyye, Kahire 1346, 1352, 1382, 1392, 1396, 1397; Beyrut 1399/1979, Mevsûʿatü’l-ḫarâc içinde). Eserin tam tahkiki, ilk olarak Abdülazîz b. Muhammed er-Rahbî (ö. 1194/1780) tarafından yapılan Fıḳhü’l-mülûk ve miftâḥu’r-ritâci’l-mürṣad ʿalâ ḫizâneti Kitâbi’l-Ḫarâc adlı şerhinin neşrinde gerçekleştirilmiştir (I-II, Bağdad 1973). Bu şerhin muhakkiki Ahmed Abîd el-Kübeysî, sayfanın üst ve alt taraflarında birbirinden ayırdığı metinle şerhi sistematik bir şekilde karşılaştırmış, bunu yaparken de şerhin eldeki iki yazmasıyla metnin baskılarını esas almıştır. Nisbeten eksik olan tahkik tekniğine rağmen ortaya kullanışlı bir metin çıkmıştır. Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc ’ın Muhammed İbrâhim el-Bennâ (Kahire 1981) ve İhsan Abbas’ın (Beyrut 1405/1985) yaptığı neşirleri de tahkik tekniği açısından Kebîsî’ninkinden üstün değildir.
Osmanlı Türkçesi’ne Müderriszâde Mehmed Atâullah Efendi (Kitâbü’l-Harâc , sadeleştiren İsmail Karakaya, Ankara 1982) ve Rodosîzâde Mehmed Efendi (Kitâbü’l-Harâc ) tarafından çevrilen eseri Ali Özek günümüz Türkçe’sine kazandırmıştır (Kitâbü’l-Haraç , İstanbul 1968, 1973). Ayrıca Âbid Ahmed Ali’nin İngilizce’ye çevirdiği eserin (Kitab-ul-Kharaj: Islamic Revenue Code , Lahore 1979) Fransızca (E. Fagnan, Le livre de l’impôt foncier , Paris 1921), Urduca (M. N. Sıddîkī, Lahor 1966) ve özet bir İtalyanca (Ilkitab al-Kharag , Roma 1906) tercümesi de yapılmıştır. Kitabın A. Ben Shemesh tarafından Taxation in Islam adıyla yapılan kısmî bir İngilizce çevirisi de vardır (eleştirisi için bk. Hawting, s. 190).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Ebû Yûsuf, Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc , Kahire 1396.
İbnü’n-Nedîm, el-Fihrist , s. 203.
Abdülazîz b. Muhammed er-Rahbî, Fıḳhü’l-mülûk ve miftâḥu’r-ritâc (nşr. Ahmed Abîd el-Kübeysî), Bağdad 1973-75, I-II.
Ahmed Emîn, Ḍuḥa’l-İslâm , Beyrut 1353/1935, II, 201-203.
Brockelmann, GAL , I, 177; Suppl. , I, 288.
Sezgin, GAS , I, 420.
A. Ben Shemesh, Taxation in Islam , Leiden-London 1969, III, s. VII-VIII, 1-32.
Mahmûd Matlûb, Ebû Yûsuf: Ḥayâtühû ve âs̱âruhû ve ârâʾühü’l-fıḳhiyye , Bağdad 1972, s. 103-109.
Şevkī Ahmed Dünyâ, Silsiletü aʿlâmi’l-iḳtiṣâdi’l-İslâmî , Riyad 1404/1984, s. 19-70.
Z. Ahghari, The Origin and Evolution of Islamic Economic Thought (doktora tezi, 1991), The Florida State University, s. 100-101.
A. K. M. Meera – S. N. Ahsan, “al-Kharaj and Related Issues: A Comparative Study of Early Islamic Scholarly Thoughts and Their Reception by Western Economists”, Readings in Islamic Economic Thought (ed. A. M. Sadeq – A. Ghazali), Kuala Lumpur 1992, s. 203-221.
N. Calder, “The Kitāb al-Kharāj of Abū Yūsuf”, Studies in Early Muslim Jurisprudence , Oxford 1993, s. 105-160.
G. R. Hawting, “Taxation in Islam. Vol. III: Abū Yūsuf’s Kitāb al-Kharāj”, JRAS (1971), s. 190.
Hâdî Derkāş, “Niẓâmü’l-ḫarâc min ḫilâli Kitâbi’l-Ḫarâc li-Ebî Yûsuf el-Ḳāḍî”, el-Mevrid , X/3-4, Bağdad 1981, s. 146-148.
M. Necatullah Sıddîkī, “el-Fikrü’l-iḳtiṣâdî li-Ebî Yûsuf”, Mecelletü ebḥâs̱i’l-iḳtiṣâdi’l-İslâmî , II/2, Cidde 1405/1985, s. 72-87.
Me’mûn es-Sâgricî, “Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc li-Ebî Yûsuf”, MMLADm. , LX/2 (1985), s. 359-361.
Abdul Azim Islahi, “Market Mechanism in Islam: A Historical Perspective”, Journal of Islamic Economics , I/1, Petaling Jaya 1995, s. 2-3.
Cengiz Kallek, “Ebû Yûsuf’un İktisadî Görüşleri”, İslâm Araştırmaları Dergisi , sy. 1, İstanbul 1997, s. 1-18.
Ali Hüsnî el-Harbûtlî, “el-Ḫarâc li-Ebî Yûsuf”, Tİ , IV, 605-616.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2002 yılında Ankara’da basılan 26. cildinde, 101-104 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.