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Arapça’da kitâb “toplamak, bir araya getirip dikmek, bağlamak; yazmak, istinsah etmek” anlamlarına gelen ketb kökünden türemiş bir masdar olup yazılarak bir araya getirilen bilgilerle bunların yazıldığı malzemeyi ifade eder. İslâmî literatürde kitap “Kur’ân-ı Kerîm, vahiy, mektup, belge, iki kapak arasında toplanmış bilgi, bir eserin ana konularından her biri” gibi çeşitli anlamlarda kullanılmıştır.
Ortaya çıkışından itibaren kitabın tarihinde malzeme ve şekil bakımından birtakım değişiklikler meydana gelmiştir. Günümüze ulaşan ilk kitaplar eski Ön Asya medeniyetlerine ait çivi yazılı tabletlerdir. Tarihi Sumerler’e uzanan, fırınlanmış veya kızgın güneşte kurutulmuş bu kil levhalar, genellikle okul olarak da kullanılan tablet evlerinde (edubba) veya saray ve mâbedlerin arşivlerinde muhafaza edilmekteydi. Bunlar birbirine tesbit edilmemiş, raflarda yan yana konulan levhalar halindeydi. Asur İmparatoru Asurbanipal’in (m.ö. 669-629 [?]) dünyanın en eski kütüphanesi diye bilinen Ninevâ’daki tablet evinde 20.000 tablet bulunmuş (halen British Museum’dadır) ve bunların hükümdarın çeşitli yerlere gönderdiği, özel kâtipler tarafından kopya edilen eski Sumer ve Akkad edebî, ilmî metinlerinden oluştuğu görülmüştür (Yıldız, s. 15). Kur’an’a göre Tûr dağında Hz. Mûsâ’ya verilen kutsal metinler de (ahd) levhalara yazılmıştı (el-A‘râf 7/145, 150, 154). Özel bir sandıkta (tâbûtü’l-ahd) korunan bu levhalar mevcut Tevrat’a göre taştandı (Concordance , “Tablet”, s. C1155).
Birbirine raptedilmiş yapraklardan meydana gelen ilk kitaplar Mısır’da bulunan tomarlardır. Milâttan önce III. binyılın ilk yarısında ortaya çıkan bu kitaplar, “cyperus papyrus” denilen bitkiden yapılmış kâğıt varakların birbirine yapıştırılmasıyla elde edilen ve ortalama enleri 30 cm., boyları 6-7 m. kadar olan şeritler halindeydi. Metinler sütun sütun yazılıyor ve şeritler okundukça uçlarının yapıştırıldığı sopalar çevrilerek sarılıyordu, daha sonra deri kılıflarına konuluyordu (resim için bk. DİA , XXII, 574). Her metnin ayrı bir ruloda yer alması esastı; ancak uzun metinler birden fazla ruloya yazılır ve bunlar sandıklarda muhafaza edilirdi. Homeros’un eserlerinin kırk sekiz rulo tuttuğu bilinmektedir (Yıldız, s. 30). Mısır papirüsleri içinde, I. Sesostris’in (m.ö. 1970-1936) tahta çıkışıyla ilgili olan tomar gibi metni açıklayıcı resimler ihtiva edenler de bulunmaktadır (Levarie, s. 2). Grekçe yazılmış en eski resimli kitap ise milâttan önce 165’e tarihlenen Eudoxus’un astronomiye dair papirüs tomarıdır (a.g.e. , s. 10, 11). Papirüs tomarları başta Romalılar olmak üzere daha sonra çeşitli milletler tarafından benimsenmiş ve Ortaçağ’da yahudi dinî kitapları ile devrini tamamlamıştır. Batı dillerinde “kitap” demek olan bibl kelimesi de papirüsün ihraç edildiği başlıca liman olan Byblos’tan (Biblos, Lübnan’ın Cebâil Limanı) gelmektedir (a.g.e. , s. 10). Helenistik dönem Mısır Kralı V. Ptolomaios Epiphanes’in (m.ö. 210-181), 700.000 kitaplık ünlü İskenderiye Kütüphanesi’ne rakip olan 200.000 kitaplık Bergama Kütüphanesi’nin daha fazla zenginleşmesini engellemek için Pergamon Krallığı’na yapılan papirüs ihracatını durdurması üzerine Bergamalılar bugün de kendi adlarıyla anılan parşömeni (Gr. pergaméné [Bergama işi]) bulmuşlar ve kitap istinsahını sürdürmüşlerdir. Özel biçimde tabaklanarak sertleştirilmiş ve beyazlatılmış ince deri olan parşömenden (bk. KÂĞIT ) kesilen dört köşe sayfalar, daha sonra Roma İmparatoru Augustus döneminde (m.ö. 27-14) ikiye katlanarak sırtlarından birbirine dikilmiş ve zamanla günümüzdeki kitap formuna ulaşılmıştır. Ancak bu süreçte bir aşama olarak Kuzey Avrupa’da kullanılan kayın ağacı (ak gürgen) levhalarını da zikretmek gerekir. Ahşabının beyazlığı ile tanınan bu ağaçtan ince levhalar kesilerek ikisi ve daha fazlası birbirine bağlanıyor, böylece elde edilen deftere kitap metni yazılıyordu. İngilizce book ve Almanca Buch kelimeleri de Germanik dillerden Anglo-Saksonca ile (eski İng.) eski Almanca’da “kayın ağacı” demek olan bôc (İng. beech) ve buohha dan (Alm. Buche) gelmektedir. Aynı şekilde ciltlenmiş yazmalar için kullanılan codex kelimesi de Latince “ağaç gövdesi” anlamındaki caudexe dayanmaktadır (a.g.e. , s. 1).
İslâm dünyasında iki kapak arasındaki sayfalardan oluşan ilk kitap, Hz. Ebû Bekir devrinde bir araya getirilen ve Hz. Osman dönemindeki istinsahta esas alınan mushaftır (bk. MUSHAF ). İslâm dininde ilme verilen büyük önem ve kâğıdın yaygınlaşması, sahâbe döneminden başlayarak bilginin yazıyla kayıt altına alınmasını sağlamış, II. (VIII.) yüzyılın birinci yarısından itibaren çeşitli konulara dair kitaplar ortaya çıkmaya başlamıştır. İbn Ebû Zi’b, İmam Mâlik, İbn Cüreyc, İbn İshak, İbn Ebû Arûbe, Ma‘mer b. Râşid, Evzâî ve Süfyân es-Sevrî’nin eserleri bunlardandır (Mustafa M. el-A‘zamî, s. 32, 104, 132, 133, 136, 137, 143, 148-149). Abbâsîler döneminde hızla artan özel ve genel kütüphanelerde sayıları bazan yüz binlerle ifade edilen kitaplar vardı. Aslında ezber geleneğini sürdüren Araplar’da yazı yazma bir eksiklik sayılırdı. Kitâbü’l-Ḥayevân ’ın başında yazı ve kitabın önemine dair bir bölüm ayıran Câhiz’in, “Kitabı ayıpladın; halbuki ben ondan daha iyi komşu, daha insaflı ortak, daha uyumlu yoldaş, daha mütevazi öğretmen ve daha yeterli, yanlış yola saptırmayan, bıktırıp usandırmayan … arkadaş görmedim” (Kitâbü’l-Ḥayevân , I, 41) sözleri bu geleneğe karşıdır. Fakat kitabın yaygınlaşmasına rağmen bilgiyi hâfızaya alma geleneği yine de sürmüştür. Müellifler, bazan binlerce sayfa tutan teliflerini hâfızalarından dikte ettirebilirlerdi. Telifte kaynak vermeye büyük özen gösterilir, imlâ meclislerinde belli bir usule göre istinsah edilen eserler için semâ kayıtları tutulurdu (Pedersen, s. 26-30). İmlâ hatalarını önlemek için de “edebü’l-kâtib” türü eserler kaleme alınmıştır.
Kitabın değerine göre hattına ayrı bir önem verilir, güzel yazının okumayı teşvik ettiği düşünülürdü. Kitapçılar esere, yazarına, nâdir olup olmayışına, cilt, yazı ve tezhibine göre değer biçerlerdi. Kitap botanik, zooloji, tıp, mekanik gibi bir dalda ise açıklayıcı resimler konurdu. Değerli edebî eserler, özellikle şiir kitapları genelde ta‘likle yazılır, tezhiplenir ve konusuna göre minyatürlerle süslenirdi. Kitabın cildi büyük önem taşırdı. İlk sayfanın a yüzü süslü ise zahriye adını alır, metnin başındaki süslemeye “serlevha” denirdi. Genellikle kitap hamdele, salvele ve besmele ile başlar, hâtime ve ketebe kaydıyla son bulurdu (bk. İSTİNSAH ; YAZMA ). Kitaplar akrâbâzîn türünde olduğu gibi işlevlerine göre cepte, kuşakta, çizme ve çantalarda kolay taşınabilecek boyutlarda küçük veya evlerde, kütüphanelerde muhafaza edilebilecek boyutlarda büyük yazılır ve ciltlenirdi.
Emevî ve Abbâsîler’den itibaren kitaba büyük değer verilmiştir. Hârûnürreşîd ve Me’mûn, Bizans’a karşı kazandıkları zaferlerden sonra savaş tazminatı olarak Antikçağ filozoflarının henüz Arapça’ya çevrilmemiş kitaplarını istemişlerdir (Hunke, s. 266). X. (XVI.) yüzyılda İslâm dünyasındaki herhangi bir özel kütüphanede bulunan ortalama kitap sayısı, aynı dönemde Batı’nın bütün kütüphanelerinde bulunan kitap sayısından fazlaydı (a.g.e. , s. 277). Fernand Grenard, Batı’da V. Karl’ın (Charles-Quint) 900 ciltlik kütüphanesiyle iftihar edildiğini, halbuki daha dört asır önce İspanya’daki halifenin sarayında 400.000 cilt kitap olduğunu yazar (Asyanın Yükselişi ve Düşüşü , s. 31-32; ayrıca bk. KÜTÜPHANE ).
Yazıya ve yazılı nesnelerin tamamına “bitik” diyen Türkler kitapla İslâm öncesinde, Uygurlar’ın Budizm’i kabul ettikleri dönemde tanışmışlar ve oluşturdukları dinî ağırlıklı zengin edebiyatın ürünlerini kitaplar halinde kaleme almışlardır. XX. yüzyılın başlarında Alfred von Le Coq tarafından Hoço kazılarında Mani yazmaları arasında bulunan iki deri cilt parçası Uygurlar’ın ciltçiliği de öğrendiklerini ve yüksek bir sanat düzeyine ulaştırdıklarını göstermektedir. Söz konusu cilt parçaları dünyanın sanat eseri niteliği taşıyan ilk ciltleri arasında yer almaktadır (bk. CİLTÇİLİK ).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
D. Robinson, “Tablet”, Concordance to the Good News Bible , Suffolk 1983, s. C1155.
Plinius (Pliny the Elder), Natural History (trc. John F. Healy), London 1991, s. 179-180.
Câhiz, Kitâbü’l-Ḥayevân , I, 41, 42.
C. Zeydân, İslâm Medeniyeti Tarihi (trc. Zekî Mugāmiz, İstanbul 1329), İstanbul 1973, III, 350-358.
N. Abbot, Studies in Arabic Literary Papyri , Chicago 1957-67, I, 3, 21, 22, 23, 24; II, 44, 48.
E. Chiera, Kilden Kitaplar (trc. Ali Muzaffer Dinçol), İstanbul 1964, s. 99.
F. Grenard, Asyanın Yükselişi ve Düşüşü (trc. Orhan Yüksel), İstanbul 1970, s. 31-32.
Orhan Öcal, Kitabın Evrimi , Ankara 1971, s. 94-95.
S. Hunke, İslâm’ın Güneşi Avrupa’nın Üzerinde (trc. Servet Sezgin), İstanbul 1975, s. 266, 277.
Mahmûd Abbas Hammûde, Târîḫu’l-kitâbi’l-İslâmî , Kahire 1979, s. 18, 147 vd., 222 vd.
J. Pedersen, The Arabic Book (trc. G. French), New Jersey 1984, s. 14, 15, 23-30, 37, 43, 46, 51, 73, 93-100, 104, 117, 119.
Nuray Yıldız, Eskiçağ Kütüphaneleri , İstanbul 1985, s. 10-37.
S. N. Kramer, Tarih Sumer’de Başlar (trc. Muazzez İlmiye Çığ), Ankara 1990, s. 195 vd., 291.
Mustafa M. el-A‘zamî, İlk Devir Hadis Edebiyatı (trc. Hulusi Yavuz), İstanbul 1993, s. 30-32, 104, 132, 133, 136, 137, 143, 148-149.
Şinasi Tekin, Eski Türklerde Yazı, Kağıt, Kitap ve Kağıt Damgaları , İstanbul 1993, s. 41, 46 vd.
A. Stipcevic, Târîḫu’l-kitâb (trc. Muhammed M. Arnaût), Küveyt 1993, s. 8 vd.
N. Levarie, The Art and History of Books , New Castle 1995, s. 1, 2, 10, 11, 20.
Turhan Baytop, “Akrâbâzîn”, DİA , II, 287.
Nebi Bozkurt – Nevzat Kaya, “İstinsah”, a.e. , XXIII, 369-371.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2002 yılında Ankara’da basılan 26. cildinde, 120-121 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.