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KUBBE Skip to content Mimaride örtü olarak kullanılan yarım küre biçiminde unsur.
Sözlükte “kavisli, bombeli şey; göbek; yuvarlak dam” demektir. Kelime, İslâmiyet’i kabul eden bütün milletlerin dillerine aynen veya kümbet/gümbet şeklinde girdiği gibi İspanyolca aracılığıyla Batı dillerine geçmiştir. İspanyolca’da, üstü yuvarlak veya piramidal çift kişilik karyola cibinliğinden hareketle yatak odasına verilen alcoba (el-kubbe) ismi daha sonra aynı anlamda ve bunun yanı sıra “kemerli niş, mihrap; kemerli girişe sahip geniş mekân (salon vb.) bölmesi; kameriye” gibi anlamlarla Fransızca’ya (alcôve), İngilizce’ye (alcove), Almanca’ya (Alkoven), Hollandaca’ya (alkoof) ve İsveççe’ye (alkov) geçmiştir.
Düz dam, kırma çatı veya külâh şeklindeki örtü sistemlerine göre kubbe teşkil ettiği dışbükey kütle dolayısıyla değişik bir etkiye sahiptir. Bunun yanında geniş açıklıkları örtebilen teknik özelliği bakımından iyi bir mimari çözüm, yuvarlak şekliyle çeşitli örtülere göre estetik değeri yüksek bir formdur. Farklı mimari kültür çevrelerinde üslûplara kimlik veren kubbe çok eski zamanlardan beri kullanılmaktadır. Yapı üzerinde çıkıntı yaparak yükselen kubbenin çapı, yüksekliği ve şekli devir ve bölgelere göre çeşitlilik göstermiş, mimari bütünlük içinde önemli bir belirleyici faktör halinde kendisini belli etmiştir. Tarihî gelişme içinde gittikçe büyüyen kubbe, dış görünüşte mimari kütlenin kompozisyonunu önemli ölçüde yönlendirirken iç mekânda yapıyı anlamlı kılan bir kavram niteliğiyle mimariye hâkim olmuştur. Ahşap, tuğla ve taş örgü teknikleri kullanılarak mimarlık tarihi boyunca denenen kubbe asıl dikkat çekici gelişmesini Türk ve İslâm mimarisinde ortaya koymuş, özellikle Osmanlı mimarisinde tam ve yarım kubbeler halinde düzenlenerek en gelişmiş şeklini almıştır. Kubbeye hiçbir zaman iltifat etmeyen mimari çevreler olduğu gibi bu unsura başvuran, fakat gelişme yönünü bulamayan çevreler de vardır. Günümüzde ortaya çıkan yeni malzemelerle beton, çelik, cam ve plastik kullanılarak inşa edilen yapılarda zaman zaman geleneksel formda kubbe yapıldığı gibi jeodezik kubbe tipleri de denenmektedir.
Yapılan arkeolojik araştırmalar, şehirciliğin en eski dönemlerinden itibaren Akdeniz’den Çin’e kadar hemen her çevrede kubbenin varlığını kanıtlamaktadır. Mezopotamya’daki Arpaçiya’da bulunan milâttan önce VI. binyıla ait yuvarlak temelli bir yapının çamurlu harçla birbirine tutturulmuş kerpiç ve taşlarla örülen bir kubbe ile örtülmüş olabileceği düşünülmektedir. Ege ve Akdeniz çevresinde milâttan önce 1500-1200 yılları arasına rastlayan devrin Miken kubbeli mezarları ile temsil edilmesi ilgi çekici bir gelişmedir. Yunanistan’da bulunan dokuz adet kubbeli mezardan en büyüğü olan ve Atreus Hazine Binası adıyla tanınan örnek, 14,50 m. çapındaki kubbesiyle bu tür yapılar arasında ölçü büyüklüğü ve taş işçiliği bakımından dikkati çeker. Kubbenin kuruluşu, duvarların üst kısmından başlayarak yukarıya doğru çıkıldıkça daraltılan taş halkalarla (bindirme tekniği) gerçekleştirilmiştir. Harçsız yapılan ve Batı sanatında Roma çağının sonuna kadar yaygın biçimde kullanılan bu tür kubbelere “yalancı kubbe” adı verilmektedir. Kaynağı Doğu’ya bağlanan yalancı kubbeler, özellikle Ege ve Akdeniz şehir devletlerinde milâttan önce VI. yüzyıldan sonra ortaya çıkan yuvarlak planlı ve kubbeli binaların da (tolos) öncüsüdür. Benzer uygulamalar Etrüsk mezar binalarında daha büyük ölçüler içinde karşımıza çıkar. Bu gelenek Roma mimarisinde bir kısım mezar anıtları (mausoleum) ve Roma ve Tivoli’deki Vesta tapınakları ile Ba‘lebek’teki Venüs Tapınağı gibi dinî yapılar için deneme konusu olmuştur. Roma çağında kubbe mimarisi bakımından bir dönüm noktası sayılan Roma’daki Panteon farklı özellikleri sebebiyle ayrıca göz önünde tutulur. Milât yıllarına yakın bir tarihte yapıldığı anlaşılan bina, o güne kadar uygulanan tapınak mimarisinin aksine tek ve toplu bir mekân elde etmek üzere tasarlanmış ve 43,40 m. çapındaki bir mekânı iç destek kullanmadan örtebilmenin tek yolu olarak da kubbeye başvurulmuştur (kubbenin yüksekliği de 43,40 metredir). O güne kadar gerçekleştirilen kubbelerin en büyüğü olan bu kubbe, Mikelanj’ın Vatikan San Pietro Kilisesi’nde uyguladığı kubbeye kadar bu özelliğini korumuştur. Daha sonraki pek çok merkezî planlı yapıya öncülük eden Panteon bu kubbesiyle Hıristiyanlığın yayılmasından hemen önce âdeta tek tanrılı inanç sistemine hazırlık yapan bir eser kimliğindedir. Yalancı kubbe aşamasından sonra kubbenin farklı bir gelişme doğrultusuna kavuşması, kare planlı alt yapıya oturtulma mecburiyeti ve bunun getireceği teknik ve statik çözüm yollarının araştırılmasıyla başlar. Bu durumda köşeli alt yapı ile yarım küre şeklindeki üst yapı arasında bir geçiş unsurunun ortaya çıkması kaçınılmaz hale gelmiş ve küçük ölçülü yapılarda sadece bir köşe taşı koymakla çözülen bu problem büyük yapılarda içten pandantif, tromp veya üçgen geçiş unsurlarının, dıştan çokgen bir kasnağın ilâvesini gerektirmiştir.
Kubbenin asıl gelişimi Doğu mimarisinde gerçekleşmiş, Türk çadırlarıyla stupa ve âteşkedelerden yola çıkan mimarlar bu düzeni geliştirerek sonunda Osmanlı cami mimarisine kadar ulaşan bir çizgiyi takip etmişlerdir. Türkler’in kullandığı ve Hz. Peygamber zamanında Araplar’ın “Türk kubbesi” dedikleri topak ev veya yurtlar kubbe biçimindedir. Ayrıca Doğu ülkelerindeki köylerde küçük ölçülü de olsa tarihin her devresinde kubbeli bir yapı bulmak mümkündür. Pek çok araştırmacının kâgir mimarinin çadırları taklit ederek ortaya çıktığını ileri sürmesinin sebebi de budur. Sanat tarihçisi Josef Strzygowski’ye göre gökkubbeyi temsil eden Türk kubbesi (topak ev) Orta ve Ön Asya’dan bütün dünyaya yayılan kubbe mimarisinin menşeidir ve Mezopotamya’nın kubbeli evleriyle İran ve Anadolu’nun kümbetleri birer kâgir Türk çadırından başka bir şey değildir (DİA , VIII, 162). Türk çadırı ile kubbe arasındaki benzerlik gökyüzü, hükümranlık ve kozmik sembollerle bağlantılı biçimde uzun bir gelişme süreci izlemiş, bu arada stupa adı verilen yapı tipi ortaya çıkarak çadırdan kubbeye geçişte aracılık yapmıştır. Bu etki ilk türbelerde çok açıktır. Topak ev gibi kâinatı temsil eden stupaların ilk örnekleri, içindeki oyuklarda kutsal kalıntıların saklandığı yarım küre şeklinde masif Budist anıtlarıdır. İçi boş olan Uygur stupaları ise şekil ve tezyinat bakımından daha çok topak eve benzer. VIII-IX. yüzyıllara tarihlenen Tirmiz Kırkkız Türbesi 11,5 m. çapındaki kubbesiyle erken tarihli bir örnektir. Aynı şekilde Hazar şehri yakınlarında bulunan ve Karahanlılar’a bağlanan Degaron Camii (X. yüzyıl), 6,5 m. çapındaki orta kubbesi ve köşelerindeki dört küçük kubbesiyle merkezî bir plan gösterir. Asıl gelişmesini Büyük Selçuklu ve Anadolu Selçuklu mimarilerinde gösteren kubbe, Doğu Asya’nın stupaları kadar İran’ın âteşkedelerinin de belirli unsurlarını almış olmalıdır. Genellikle Sâsânîler devrinde yaygınlık kazanan âteşkedeler dört ayak üzerine oturan kubbeden ibaret basit bir yapı gösterir. Altında kutsal ateş yanan bu yapıların ayakları birbirine kemerlerle bağlıdır ve kemerlerden kubbeye geçişte tromp kullanılmıştır.
Kubbe gibi mimari bir unsurun İslâm eserlerinde benimsenip geliştirilmesi farklı bölgelerdeki yorumlarla değişik çehreler göstermektedir. Kur’an’da cemaatle namaz kılınacak mekânın özellikleri tarif edilmediği gibi bu ibadetin şekli bakımından da kubbeli yapı şart tutulmamıştır; mescid ve cami kelimelerinin de kubbeli mimariyle kavram olarak herhangi bir ilgisi yoktur. Bu hususlar kubbenin İslâm doktrininin veya litürjisinin bir sonucu olamayacağını gösterir. Gerçi merkezî planlı camilerdeki tek kubbenin tevhid düşüncesiyle örtüşen bir sembolizme çok uygun düştüğü söylenebilir; fakat böyle bir plan sadece Anadolu’da ve ancak XVI. yüzyılda şekillenmiştir. Yanlışlıkla Ömer Camii de denilen Kubbetü’s-sahre hariç tutulursa Hulefâ-yi Râşidîn ve Emevî dönemlerinden kalan camilerin hiçbirinde kubbe mekâna hâkim bir eleman olarak görünmez; çok sayıdaki destek sıralarıyla ayrılan nefler genellikle düz dam örtülüdür. Mescid-i Aksâ, Emeviyye Camii ve İbn Tolun Camii’nde ise mihrabın önündeki sütunlardan birkaçı kaldırılarak bu kesim birer kubbe ile vurgulanmıştır. Ancak bu kubbeler, enlemesine genişleyen yapıların kütle kompozisyonuna estetik bir katkıda bulunmadığı gibi tam aksine yatay gelişen örtü sisteminin bir kenarında garip bir çıkıntı yapar. Sekizgen planlı Kubbetü’s-sahre’de ise dört kalın pâye ile on iki sütunun taşıdığı on altı pencereli yüksek bir kasnağa oturan yarım küreyi aşkın 20,44 m. çapındaki kubbe binaya tamamen hâkimdir.
İslâm kubbe mimarisi bakımından ilk önemli örneklerden biri, Gazneliler’e ait Leşker-i Bâzâr Ulucamii’nde enlemesine gelişen camilerin ilk mihrap önü kubbesi olan yaklaşık 9 m. çapındaki kubbesidir (DİA , XIII, 484). Yine XI. yüzyıla ait İsfahan Cuma Camii’nin Melikşah zamanında yapılan mihrap önü kubbesi 14, Terken Hatun’un onun kuzeyine yaptırdığı ikinci kubbe ise 11 m. çapındadır. Büyük Selçuklu kubbelerinin en muhteşemi, Sultan Sencer Türbesi’nin o güne kadar inşa edilenlerin en büyüğü olan 17 m. çapındaki kubbesidir. Selçuklu kümbetlerinde kubbe çok defa koni veya piramit şeklinde bir külâhla dışa yansıtılarak çift çeperli bir örtü elde edilmiştir. Timurlu devrinde kasnakları iyice yükseltilen ve derinliği arttırılan kubbeler bazan tamamen çinilerle kaplanarak pırıltılı, bazan da yivli yüzeyleriyle gösterişli hale getirilmiştir. En abartılı görünümüyle Tac Mahal’de karşımıza çıkan soğan şekilli kubbe önce Hint ve Güneydoğu Asya mimarisinde yaygınlık kazanmış, daha sonra Rus ve diğer Ortodoks kiliselerinde kullanılmıştır.
Leşker-i Bâzâr Ulucamii’nden hareketle Büyük Selçuklu türbe ve camilerinde tuğla malzemenin imkânlarını sonuna kadar deneyerek gelişen kubbe, bir taş ülkesi olan Anadolu’da uyum sağladığı bu yeni malzeme ile kararlı bir büyüme içine girmiş ve mimari bütünlük içerisinde diğer unsurlarla kaynaşıp kütle kompozisyonunu tamamlayan bir unsur haline gelmesini Anadolu Selçukluları zamanında kaydetmiştir. Siirt ve Bitlis ulucamilerinde artık plan şemasının vazgeçilmez bir unsuru olan mihrap önü kubbesi, Silvan Ulucamii’nde mukarnaslı tromplar üzerine oturarak iç bünyeyle bütünleşirken dışta sekizgen bir kasnağa dayanarak kütleye hâkim bir konum alır. Daha sonra Mardin Kızıltepe ve Erzurum ulucamilerinde, bunlarla çağdaş Selçuklu kümbetlerinde ölçü olarak büyüyen kubbenin gelişimi açıkça bellidir. Ancak kubbenin geniş anlamdaki mimari konumu ve mekânla ilgili problemleri özellikle kapalı medreselerde amaca uygun çözümlere kavuşur. Selçuklu kapalı medreselerinde büyük orta mekânı örten kubbe gerek ölçülerindeki büyüme, gerekse bu elemanı alt yapıya bağlayan geçiş unsurlarının kaynaşma biçimi açısından âdeta Osmanlı cami mimarisine bir hazırlık gibidir. Bunlardan Konya Karatay Medresesi’nde çapı 12 metreyi aşan kubbe tepe noktasındaki açıklıkla olgun bir şekil gösterir. Kubbe ile duvarlar arasına konulan üçgen pandantifler yelpaze şeklindedir ve bu düzen İnce Minareli Medrese ile Afyon’daki Çay Medresesi’nde tekrarlanır. Cami planlarında giderek genişleyen kubbe, Beylikler dönemine ait Manisa Ulucamii’nde mihrap duvarı ile altı adet serbest pâyeye oturan ve üç neflik bir alanı örten 10,80 m. çapındaki örneğe ulaşır. Bu gelişme erken Osmanlı yapılarında devam eder.
Edirne’deki Üç Şerefeli Cami’de altıgen şemaya oturan kubbenin çapı 24 metreye çıkarken yanlarına daha küçük dört kubbe eklenir. Burada gerçek anlamdaki kubbe mimarisinin bütün unsurları tamamlanmıştır. Bundan sonraki gelişme ana kubbeye eşlik eden yarım kubbelerle bunların ekleniş biçimlerinde görülür. İstanbul Beyazıt Camii’nde Mimar Hayreddin’in ortaya koyduğu şema bir tam, iki yarım kubbe ile hafifçe uzunlamasına gelişmekte, Diyarbakır Fâtih Paşa Camii’nde ise ortada bir tam, bunun etrafında dört yarım kubbeye dönüşmektedir. Mimar Sinan’ın elinde şekillenen bu ikinci şema daha sonraki uygulamalarda dört, altı ve sekiz destekli tiplerle hemen her zaman merkezî plan arayışına yönelir. Şehzade Camii’nde ana mekân dört yönden de simetrik bir görüntüye kavuşturulmaktadır. Süleymaniye’de Beyazıt Camii’nin planına bir dönüş gözlenmekle birlikte kubbelerin büyüklü küçüklü kullanılışı daha üstün bir tasarımla ortaya konmuştur. Bu sistemde ana kubbe aleminden binanın köşelerine indirilen hayalî çizgiler büyük bir üçgen teşkil eder ve bu üçgen içerisinde yarım küre şeklindeki kubbelerin kademeli sıralanışı büyük bir düzen sergiler. Klasik devir Osmanlı camisinin yalın fakat güçlü yapısı, dikdörtgen prizma şeklindeki bina gövdesiyle kubbelerin bu binaya ekleniş biçimindeki özellikten kaynaklanır. Bu kompozisyonda tek kubbenin yalnız başına yapıya hâkim olması söz konusu değildir; ayrıca eş büyüklükteki kubbelerle sağlanan bir örtü sisteminden vazgeçilmiştir. Bedesten, han ve medrese gibi sivil yapılarda ise camilerde vazgeçilen eş büyüklükteki kubbe sisteminin tercih edildiği görülür. Klasik devir Osmanlı mimarisinde kubbe tekniğinin ulaştığı estetik seviye Edirne’deki Selimiye’nin kubbesiyle ölçü büyüklüğünün de zirvesine ulaşır.
Osmanlı kubbe mimarisi hakkında araştırma yapan sanat tarihçileri genellikle kendilerini Ayasofya polemiği içinde bulurlar. Bizans yapılarının plan, kütle, plastik unsurlar ve özellikle kubbe konusunda başvurduğu çözüm yolları bellidir. Halbuki Ayasofya, Bizans kilise mimarisi içinde hemen hiçbir gruba girmeyen bir deneme yapıdır. Bizans için tipik olmayan bu yapının sadece kubbeleri dolayısıyla Osmanlı mimarisini yönlendirdiğini düşünmek öncelikle gelişme mantığına aykırıdır ve Ayasofya’yı tek kaynak olarak görmek bu bakımdan hatalıdır. Diğer Bizans yapılarında ise genellikle çapları 10 metreyi aşmayan kubbeler çok yüksek kasnaklar üzerine oturtulmuş ve bu unsur zaman zaman bir kuleye dönüşmüştür. Osmanlılar’da ve özellikle Mimar Sinan’da kubbe, mimari kompozisyona katılan diğer elemanlarla üstün bir düzen tasarımı içinde birleştirildiğinden etkili bir görünüm kazanmıştır. Bu gelişme, ilk örneklerden itibaren hem ölçü hem de düzen fikriyle birlikte ele alınarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Başlangıçta sembolik veya yardımcı bir unsur niteliğiyle kullanılan kubbe gittikçe yapının bütününe hâkim olmuş ve aynı zamanda yeni bir biçim kazanmıştır. Bu gelişmenin bütün İslâm mimarisi içinde sadece Türk mimarisinde izlenebilmesinin sebebi, birbiri ardınca kurulan Türk devletlerinin üzerinde yaşadıkları kültürel çevreyi iyi değerlendirmiş olmalarıdır. Osmanlı mimarisinin, bu gelişmenin son devresinde kubbe tekniğini değişmez ölçü ve esaslara bağlamak suretiyle erişebileceği en son noktaya çıkardığı kabul edilir. 1520-1617 yılları arasında yapılmış yaklaşık yirmi beş kadar cami için geçerli olmak üzere, destek sayısı ile kubbe çapları arasında bazı bağlantıların varlığından söz edebiliyoruz. Yarım kubbelerin sayısı ve düzeni ne olursa olsun, gösterişli yapıların çoğunda en sık başvurulan şema dört destekli serbest ayaklı tiptir. Bunlarda kubbe çapı 15 metreyi aşar.
Daha az sayıda uygulanan altı desteklilerde kubbe çapı ortalama 12 metreyi biraz geçer. Yine sayıca daha az bir uygulama olan sekiz desteklilerde kubbe çapı 13 m. civarındadır. Edirne Selimiye Camii için uygun görülen şema bu yapıda 31,21984 m. çaplı bir kubbeye ulaşmıştır. Sekiz destekli şema, Azapkapısı Sokullu Camii’nde 11,80 m. çaplı küçük bir kubbeyle örtüldüğüne göre bu şema, sadece geniş orta mekânı örtecek kubbe inşa etmek gibi bir işlev gereği değil her ölçüde merkezî mekân elde etmenin bir yolu olarak da benimsenmiştir. Bu kadar farklı plan şemalarını uygulayan Osmanlı mimarlarının Ayasofya şemasını fazlaca umursamadıkları anlaşılmaktadır.
Klasik dönemden sonra artık serbest olmayan destekler duvar köşelerine gömülmüş ve böylece dört ayaklı baldakenler dönemi başlamıştır. Buna göre yapılan Nuruosmaniye Camii’nde kubbe çapı, 23,70 m. ile son defa büyük bir ölçüyü tekrarlar. Bundan sonraki geç devir yapılarında aynı şema benimsenir ve kubbe çapları 15 metrenin hep altında kalır.
Yapı adı Destek sistemi Kubbe çapı (m). Manisa Ulucamii (1336) 8 10,80 Edirne Üç Şerefeli Cami (1447) 6 24,00 Diyarbakır Fâtih Paşa Camii (1520) 4 10,00 Haseki Camii (1538) 4 11,07 Üsküdar Mihrimah Sultan Camii (1548) 4 11,07 Şehzade Camii (1548) 4 19,00 Silivrikapı Hadım İbrâhim Paşa Camii (1551) 6 12,40 Tekirdağ Rüstem Paşa Camii (1552) 8 13,60 Beşiktaş Sinan Paşa Camii (1555) 6 11,50 Süleymaniye Camii (1557) 4 27,40 Azapkapı Camii (1577) 8 11,80 Topkapı Kara Ahmed Paşa Camii (1558) 6 12,42 Eminönü Rüstem Paşa Camii (1561) 8 14,90 Edirnekapı Mihrimah Sultan Camii (1562) 4 18,75 Babaeski Semiz Ali Paşa Camii (1565) 6 13,80 Havsa Sokullu Camii (1566) 4 12,40 Lüleburgaz Sokullu Camii (1569) 4 12,50 Kadırga Sokullu Camii (1571) 6 13,30 Kasımpaşa Piyâle Paşa Camii (1573) 4 9,14 (×6) Edirne Selimiye Camii (1574) 8 31,21984 Üsküdar Atik Vâlide Camii (1579) 6 12,40 Tophane Kılıç Ali Paşa Camii (1580) 4 11,80 Eyüp Zal Mahmud Paşa Camii (1580) 4 12,47 Üsküdar Şemsi Paşa Camii (1580) 4 8,00 Fâtih Mesih Paşa Camii (1585) 8 12,88 Ayvansaray İvaz Efendi Camii 6 9,95 Fındıklı Molla Çelebi Camii (1589) 6 12,80 Karagümrük Nişancı Mehmed Paşa Camii (1588) 8 13,80 Sultan Ahmed Camii (1617) 4 24,40
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Emel Esin, “Türk Kubbesi”, Selçuklu Araştırmaları Dergisi , III, Ankara 1971, s. 159-182.
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“Pantheon”, EAm. , XXI, 250.
Nebi Bozkurt, “Çadır”, DİA , VIII, 162.
Ara Altun, “Gazneliler”, a.e. , XIII, 484.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2002 yılında Ankara’da basılan 26. cildinde, 300-303 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.