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KUL Skip to content Osmanlı Devleti’nin kapıkulu askerleriyle askerî ve mülkî idarecileri için kullanılan terim.
Sözlükte “esir, köle” anlamına gelen kul , Osmanlı döneminde özellikle Fâtih Sultan Mehmed’den itibaren “tebaa, hizmetkâr ve sadık” mânalarında kullanılmış, bu arada “kapı kulu, kul kethüdâsı, kul kardeşi, kuloğlu, yerli kulu” gibi kavramlar ortaya çıkmıştır.
Devşirme kökenli kulların hukukî anlamda köle olduklarını söylemek mümkün değildir. Zira bunlar, devletle zimmet akdi yapmış reâyâ denilen hür hıristiyan ailelerin çocukları olup kendileri için devşirildikleri yerlerden giderlerine karşılık olarak “kul akçesi” adıyla bir miktar para alınırdı. Buradaki kul terimi, bunların devletin hizmetine girmeleri ve padişaha bağlı hassa askeri olmalarıyla ilgilidir. Dîvânü lugāti’t-Türk ’te kul kelimesine Osmanlı kullanışına uygun olarak “tâbi, hizmetkâr, sadık” anlamları verilmiştir (I, 282). Genellikle askerî hizmette bulunma karşılığı olan bu kavram bazan vezir tebaası için de kullanılmıştır (İnalcık, Fatih Devri , s. 198). Osmanlılar’da köle emeğine dayalı uzun süreli bir üretim tarzı söz konusu değildir. Âzat edilmedikçe savaş esirlerinin bir müddet ortakçı kul olarak çalıştırılması sadece belirli bir bölgeye has ve uzun sürmeyen bir uygulama olmuştur (Barkan, s. 575 vd.).
Eski Arap-İslâm devletlerinde saray, ordu ve idare hizmetlerinde çalıştırılan gulâmlar İslâm-Türk devletlerinde de istihdam edilmiştir. Zira saltanatın korunması amacıyla hassa ordusu oluşturma geleneği Arap-İslâm ve Türk-İslâm devletlerinde vazgeçilmez bir uygulamaydı. Nitekim Selçuklu Veziri Nizâmülmülk tarafından ordunun çeşitli yabancı unsurlardan meydana getirilmesi tavsiye ve teşvik edilmekteydi (Siyâsetnâme , s. 146 vd.). Osmanlı Devleti’nin Kapıkulu ocakları da bu geleneğin devamından başka bir şey değildir. Osmanlı Devleti’nde gulâmlar daha ziyade gılman veya yaygın olarak kul terimiyle ifade edilmiştir. Türkler’in kurduğu İran Safevî Devleti’nde kul kelimesi mensubiyet ifade eden “şah kulı, Tahmasb kulı, Ali kulı, imam kulı” şekillerinde lakap olarak da yaygınlık kazanmıştır.
Osmanlılar’da devlet hizmetlerinde Türk asıllı olmayan grupların istihdamı Osman Bey dönemine kadar iner. Nitekim 1300’lü yılların başında 500 kişilik bir alan savaşçı grubunun Osman Bey’in yanında yer aldığı bilinmektedir. Savaş esirlerinden askerî amaçlı olarak faydalanılmaya başlanması hakkındaki ilk bilgiler Orhan Bey dönemine (1324-1360) aittir. I. Murad zamanında (1360-1389) teşkilâtlanan Yeniçeri Ocağı’nın temeli, çıkarılan pencik kanunu gereğince savaş esirlerine dayandırıldı ve bundan sonra kul asıllılar devlet idaresinde giderek ağırlık kazandı. Özellikle devşirme kanunu gereğince Osmanlı tebaası hıristiyan çocuklarından bazılarının askerî hizmet ve öteki devlet hizmetleri için toplanmaya başlanmasından sonra başta sadrazamlık olmak üzere yüksek dereceli devlet kadrolarına kul asıllı kimseler getirildi. Osmanlı hükümdarları bu kişilerden aynı zamanda merkezî otoriteyi güçlendirmek için yararlandı. Meselâ I. Murad kul asıllı Lala Şâhin Paşa sayesinde, sınır boylarında yarı feodal bir hayat yaşayan akıncı kumandanı Evrenos Bey’i kendi otoritesi altına almıştı.
Yıldırım Bayezid merkezî idareyi tesis ederken bu gruplara dayandı. Kullar artık sadece merkezî idare ve askerî hizmetlerde değil timar sisteminde de yer almaya başladılar. 1402 Timur darbesinin ardından başlayan fetret döneminde etkileri daha da arttı. Çelebi Mehmed, parçalanan devleti toparlamaya çalışırken yine kul asıllı ricâl ve askerlerden yararlandı. Devletin ilmiye dışında hemen her kademesinde kul kökenli kişilerin istihdamının yaygınlık kazanması II. Murad zamanında (1421-1451) oldu. Onun döneminde kurulduğu bilinen saray okulunda iç halkı veya iç oğlanı adıyla eğitilen kullar, uzun süren saray hizmetlerinden sonra dış görevlere de çıkmaya başladılar. Kul sistemindeki müesseseleşme II. Murad zamanında başladı; Fâtih Sultan Mehmed döneminde (1451-1481) iyice yerleşti. II. Murad devrinde uç beyleriyle merkez arasında başlayan huzursuzluklara merkezdeki idareci ve askerî zümreler arasındaki nüfuz mücadelesi de eklenmiş, II. Murad 1444 yılında oğlu lehine tahttan feragat etmişti. Kul aslından olan paşaların II. Mehmed’i Çandarlı Halil Paşa’nın nüfuzundan kurtarma, Halil Paşa ve taraftarlarının ise II. Murad’ı tekrar tahta geçirme çabaları devletin üst kademelerinde ciddi problemlere yol açtı. II. Mehmed ile II. Murad arasındaki gizli çekişmede, kul asıllı paşalarla (Rumeli Beylerbeyi Şehâbeddin Paşa ve Zağanos Mehmed Paşa) Çandarlı Halil Paşa ve taraftarları arasındaki mücadele, sonucu tayin etti. Rumeli’deki gelişmeler ve 1446 yılında Edirne’de çıkan askerî bir ayaklanma bu zemini hazırladı. Şehâbeddin Paşa’nın evini basan âsiler İstanbul’daki Orhan Çelebi’yi istediklerini bildirdiler. Şehâbeddin Paşa’yı ortadan kaldırarak Sultan Murad’ı tahta çıkarmaya yönelik bu isyanın tertipleyicisi Çandarlı Halil Paşa idi (DİA , VI, 343-344). Bu hadiseden sonra Sultan Murad tahta çıktı. II. Mehmed de yanında kul asıllı Şehâbeddin ve Zağanos paşalarla birlikte Manisa’ya döndü. Böylece bir bakıma kul asıllı paşaların iktidarı ele geçirme teşebbüsleri başarısızlıkla sonuçlanmış oldu. 1451 yılında II. Murad’ın ölümü üzerine II. Mehmed’in tahta çıkması kul asıllı paşalar için yeni bir dönemin başlangıcını teşkil etti. II. Mehmed, Çandarlı Halil Paşa’yı iktidardan uzaklaştırma hususunda acele etmedi. Ancak Dîvân-ı Hümâyun üyeliklerine Şehâbeddin ve Zağanos paşalar gibi kendi adamlarını getirerek onun gücünü sınırlandırmaya çalıştı. Çandarlı’nın has adamlarından olan Yeniçeri Ağası Kazancı Doğan görevinden alındı. Yeniçeri Ocağı yeni bir düzenlemeye tâbi tutuldu. O zamana kadar doğrudan saraya bağlı olan sekbanlar ocağa dahil edildi ve bundan böyle yeniçeri ağalıklarına sekbanbaşılar getirilmeye başlandı. Böylece II. Mehmed, Çandarlı’nın nüfuzunu kırma yolunda ilk adımı attı. İstanbul’un fethinden sonra da Çandarlı Halil Paşa ve ekibini tasfiye etti. Ardından merkezî bir imparatorluk kurma yolunda kul asıllı vezir ve idarecileri ön plana çıkardı. Çandarlı’dan sonra kendisinin mutlak vekilliğini üstlenen vezîriâzamlık makamına, Karamânî Mehmed Paşa hariç hep devşirme sistemine dayalı kul aslından kişileri getirmeye özen gösterdi. Bu arada devlet idaresinde bulunan eski köklü ailelerin nüfuzunu kırdı ve kendisine mutlak itaatkâr kimseleri yüksek dereceli görevlere getirdi. Hatta kendisine vezâret teklif edilen Molla Gürânî, “O makam benim şânıma münasip değildir, bana gerekmez … Harem-i Hâs’ta yetişen kullara verilegelmiştir” diyerek bunu kabul etmemişti (Mecdî, s. 104). Vezîriâzamları kendisinin mutlak vekili yapan Fâtih Sultan Mehmed (Özcan, TD , sy. 33 [1974], s. 30), yüksek rütbeli ulemâ tayinlerini bile kazaskerlerden alarak vezîriâzamlara bağlamıştır. Hatta devletin güçlü ordusuna sahip Rumeli beylerbeyiliğini 1456-1468 yılları arasında Vezîriâzam Mahmud Paşa’nın uhdesinde bırakmıştır.
Fâtih Sultan Mehmed doğrudan şahsına bağlı kapıkulu ordusunu da yeniden nizama soktu. Öte yandan sınır boylarında Mihaloğulları, Turhanoğulları, Evrenosoğulları ve Malkoçoğulları gibi çok defa herhangi bir otoriteye bağlı olmaksızın kendi başlarına hareket edebilen akıncı beylerini merkezî sisteme bağladı, bunların nüfuzlarını kul asıllı beylerbeyiler vasıtasıyla kırdı; beylerbeyilik ve sancak beyliği görevlerini kul asıllı kimselere verdi. Fâtih Sultan Mehmed devrinde devlet idaresinde hemen her alanda kul olanlar üstün duruma geldi; eyaletlere de bunların gönderilmesine özen gösterildi. Böylece mutlak ve merkeziyetçi idarenin tesisi için devşirme sisteminden yararlanılmış ve bu uygulama XVI. yüzyılda en olgun dönemine ulaşmıştır. Fâtih Sultan Mehmed’in fethettiği yerlerdeki eski hânedanlara mensup kişileri etkisiz hale getirmesi de aynı amaca yöneliktir. Kul asıllı devlet ricâlinin yetiştiği müessese Enderun Mektebi idi. Gerçekten Fâtih Sultan Mehmed, cihanşümul hâkimiyet fikrini gerçekleştirebilmek için buraya yerli Rum asilzadelerine mensup gençleri de almaktan kaçınmamıştır. Vezîriâzamlığa kadar yükselen Rum Mehmed Paşa ile Paleologoslar’dan Has Murad Paşa ve kardeşi Mesih Paşa bunlardandır. Kul sistemi daha sonraki dönemlerde iyice yerleşti; fakat bu arada başta Karamânî Mehmed Paşa olmak üzere Çandarlı İbrâhim Paşa ve Pîrî Mehmed Paşa gibi birkaç Türk asıllı devlet adamı da padişahın mutlak vekili oldu.
Sistem küçük bazı olumsuzluklar dışında başarıyla uygulandı. Ancak devşirme işinin bozulması ve buna bağlı olarak Enderun’a istenen kapasitede aday alınamaması gibi gelişmeler sistemi etkiledi. Her ne kadar Fâtih Sultan Mehmed’in son zamanlarında, bir süredir mülk ve vakıf olarak elden çıkan toprakların tekrar mîrîleştirilmesi sırasında önemli hizmetleri geçen Karamânî Mehmed Paşa, başta Rum Mehmed Paşa olmak üzere Gedik Ahmed Paşa, İshak Paşa ve Dâvud Paşa gibi kul asıllı vezirleri gözden düşürmeyi, Türk asıllı Fâik Paşa ile ulemâdan Manisazâde Mehmed’i Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’a sokmayı başarmışsa da (Mecdî, s. 210) Fâtih’in ölümünden sonra kul kökenli ricâl ve yeniçeriler Amasya Valisi Şehzade Bayezid’i desteklemişler, buna karşılık Fâtih Sultan Mehmed’in siyasetine taraftar olanlar Şehzade Cem’i tutmuşlar, ancak Bayezid taraftarları galip gelmiştir. Bu arada Çandarlı ailesine âdeta iâde-i itibar ettirilerek bu aileden İbrâhim Paşa vezîriâzam yapılmış, fakat bu da uzun sürmemiş, Fâtih’in geliştirdiği kul sisteminin üstünlüğüne dayalı merkeziyetçi idaresi ve cihan hâkimiyeti amacına yönelik askerî devleti bu tepkiden pek etkilenmemiştir. Yavuz Sultan Selim döneminde (1512-1520) Pîrî Mehmed Paşa’dan sonra Has Odabaşılıktan vezîriâzam yapılan Makbul (Maktûl) İbrâhim Paşa’nın ardından iyice yerleşen kul sisteminin varlığını bir süre daha başarıyla sürdürdüğü söylenebilir. 1584-1587 yılları arasında İstanbul’da bulunan Venedik elçisi Lorenzo Bernardo ülkesinin senatosuna sunduğu raporunda, “Sadece devlet idaresinin değil koca imparatorluğun ordularına kumanda yetkisinin de ellerine verildiği kişiler ne dük ne marki ne de konttur. Hepsi çobanlıktan gelme sıradan insanlardır. Bu sebeple biz Venedikliler’in de padişahın yaptığını yapmamızda isabet vardır. Padişah bu adamlardan en iyi kaptanları, sancak beylerini, beylerbeyileri yetiştirerek onlara şan ve itibar kazandırmıştır” derken (Lybyer, s. 47) devşirme ve buna bağlı olarak kul sisteminin durumuna işaret etmektedir.
Osmanlı padişahlarını, özellikle de Fâtih Sultan Mehmed’i bu yola sevkeden başlıca etken, merkeziyetçi hükümranlığını güçlendirmek ve buna bağlı olarak devletin ömrünü uzatmaktı. Zira hânedana dayalı Ortaçağ devletlerinde ülke birliğinin temeli ve bekası hânedana bağlıydı. Nitekim Şehzade Mustafa’nın siyaseten katli sırasında Türkiye’de bulunan Avusturya elçisi Ootgeer G. van Busbeke de aynı hususa temas eder (Türkiye’yi Böyle Gördüm , s. 42). Köklü aileler gibi bir temeli bulunmayan devşirme kul sistemi hükümdara daha rahat tasarruf hakkı sağlıyordu. Nitekim Çandarlı Halil Paşa’nın bertaraf edilmesindeki sıkıntılar kul asıllı olan Vezîriâzam Mahmud Paşa, Gedik Ahmed Paşa ve Makbul İbrâhim Paşa’nın idamlarında yaşanmamıştı.
XV ve XVI. yüzyıllardaki yayılma politikasında ve cihanşümul imparatorluğun tesisinde büyük katkısı olan kul sistemi XVI. yüzyılın sonlarında önemini yitirmeye başladı. Kul taifesi içine girmenin sağladığı vergi vb. yükümlülüklerden sıyrılma imkânı her kademede bunların sayılarının artması sonucunu doğurmuş, kısa süreli tayinler ise rüşvetin yaygınlaşmasına yol açmıştır. Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman’dan sonra sefere çıkmayan padişahları örnek alan kul asıllı vezîriâzamlar konaklarında oturmayı tercih etmişlerdir. Nitekim yukarıda adı geçen Venedik elçisi bu defa Türkler’in zenginliğin kurbanı olduklarını, zaferleri umursamayıp evlerinde oturmayı tercih eden sultanları izlediklerini yazmaktadır. Aynı dönemde kapıkulu askerlerinin devlet için tehdit unsuru olmaları artmış, Vezîriâzam Lutfi Paşa da, “Kul mazbut olmadıkça sadrazam istirahatte olmaz, kul taifesini çoğaltmamak gerektir” diyerek bu hususa işaret etmiştir (Âsafnâme , s. 68, 92). XVI. yüzyılın sonlarından itibaren devşirme sisteminin önemini kaybetmesiyle kul sisteminin alanı genişletilerek Türk-devşirme ayırımı kaybolmuş ve bütün askerî sınıf padişahın mutlak yetkisi altına girmiştir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Dîvânü lugāti’t-Türk , I, 282.
Nizâmülmülk, Siyâsetnâme (Bayburtlugil) , s. 146 vd.
Gazavât-ı Sultân Murâd b. Mehemmed Hân (nşr. Halil İnalcık – Mevlûd Oğuz), Ankara 1978, s. 65.
Âşıkpaşazâde (Atsız), s. 106.
İbn Kemal, Tevârîh-i Âl-i Osmân , I. Defter, s. 16 vd.; VII. Defter, s. 265.
Lutfi Paşa, Âsafnâme (nşr. Mübahat S. Kütükoğlu, Prof. Dr. Bekir Kütükoğlu’na Armağan içinde), İstanbul 1991, s. 68, 92.
Mecdî, Şekāik Tercümesi , s. 104, 210.
O. G. de Busbecq, Türkiye’yi Böyle Gördüm (trc. Aysel Kurutluoğlu), İstanbul, ts. (Tercüman 1001 Temel Eser), s. 42.
Koçi Bey, Risâle (Aksüt) , tür.yer.
M. Fuad Köprülü, Bizans Müesseselerinin Osmanlı Müesseselerine Tesiri (İstanbul 1931), İstanbul 1981, s. 131 vd.
İsmail H. Baykal, Enderun Mektebi Tarihi , İstanbul 1953, tür.yer.
Ahmet Mumcu, Osmanlı Devletinde Siyaseten Katl , Ankara 1963, s. 41, 57-67, 71, 85, 102.
Ömer Lütfi Barkan, “XV ve XVI. Asırlarda Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Toprak İşçiliğinin Şekilleri”, Türkiye’de Toprak Meselesi , İstanbul 1980, s. 575 vd.
a.mlf., “Türkiye’de Servaj Var mıydı?”, a.e. , s. 717 vd.
Ülker Akkutay, Enderûn Mektebi , Ankara 1984, tür.yer.
A. H. Lybyer, Kanuni Sultan Süleyman Devrinde Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Yönetimi (trc. Seçkin Cılızoğlu), İstanbul 1987, s. 47, 68-69, 73 vd., 109 vd., 113.
Halil İnalcık, Fatih Devri Üzerinde Tetkikler ve Vesikalar: I , Ankara 1987.
a.mlf., “Osmanlılarda Saltanat Veraseti Usulü ve Türk Hakimiyet Telakkisiyle İlgisi”, SBFD , XIV/1 (1959), s. 93.
a.mlf., “Mehmed II.”, İA , VII, 507 vd.
a.mlf., “G̲h̲ulām”, EI2 (Fr.) , II, 1111-1117.
Orhan Koloğlu, “Osmanlı Toplumunda Kamuoyunun Evrimi”, Osmanlı , Ankara 1999, VII, 327, 328, 329.
Cvetana Georgieva, “Certains problèmes de la structure sociale de l’Empire ottoman aux XIVe -XVIe siècle”, Bulgarian Historical Review , II/2, Sofia 1974, s. 45-57.
Abdülkadir Özcan, “Fâtih’in Teşkilât Kanunnâmesi ve Nizam-ı Âlem İçin Kardeş Katli Meselesi”, TD , sy. 33 (1982), s. 30.
a.mlf., “Bende”, DİA , V, 431.
a.mlf., “Buçuktepe Vak‘ası”, a.e. , VI, 343-344.
a.mlf., “Gulâm [Osmanlılar]”, a.e. , XIV, 184.
C. E. Bosworth, “Ḳul”, EI2 (İng.) , V, 359.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2002 yılında Ankara’da basılan 26. cildinde, 348-350 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.