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MAHALLE Skip to content
Sözlükte “bir yere inmek, konmak, yerleşmek” anlamına gelen hall (halel ve hulûl ) kökünden türetilmiş bir mekân ismi olan mahalle kelimesi devamlı veya geçici olarak ikamet etmek için kurulan küçük yerleşim birimlerini ifade eder. Mahalle küçük değişikliklerle diğer İslâm ülkelerinde de aynı anlamda kullanılmıştır.
Tarih. İslâm tarihi kaynaklarında, Mekke’deki ilk yerleşmenin Hz. Peygamber’in dedelerinden Kusay b. Kilâb tarafından Kâbe çevresinde gerçekleştirildiği ve şehirde Kureyşü’l-bitâh ve Kureyşü’z-zevâhir adlı iki mahallenin kurulduğu kaydedilir (Belâzürî, Ensâb , I, 58; XI, 53-54). İslâm’ın ilk yıllarında Mekke’de on iki kadar mahalle bulunduğu, müslümanların Ebû Tâlib mahallesinde (şi‘bü Ebî Tâlib) kendilerine uygulanan boykot sebebiyle uzun süre sıkıntı içerisinde yaşadıkları, Resûl-i Ekrem Medine’ye hicret ettiği zaman Arap ve yahudi kabilelerinin birbirinden oldukça uzak mahallelerde oturdukları bilinmektedir. Mescid-i Nebevî’nin inşa edilmesinden sonra aynı uygulama sürdürülmekle birlikte şehirdeki yerleşme yeniden düzenlendi. Yerleşmenin şehrin içerisinde yoğunlaşmasını önlemek, şehrin güvenliğini sağlamak ve şehirden uzakta oturanların şehir merkeziyle bağlantısını sürekli hâle getirmek için kenar mahalleler bu plana dahil edildi. Ortaçağ’da yoğunlaşan dairevî şehir planıyla uygunluk arzeden ve İlkçağ’lardan beri bilinen dış mahallelerin şehrin bir bölümü olarak tasarlanması sonucunda Medine’deki mahalle sayısı arttı, bu arada bazı eski mahalleler de ortadan kalktı (İbn Şebbe, I, 260-268). Kenar mahallelerin şehrin bir bölümü olarak görülmesi anlayışı sonraki dönemlerde devam etmiş, zaman zaman bu mahallelerde oturanlara başta vergi olmak üzere bazı muafiyetler getirilmiştir (Taberî, IV, 70).
İlk İslâm fetihlerinin ardından fethedilen yerlerde kurulan yeni şehirlerde bir kabileye veya kabileler topluluğuna tahsis edilen mahalleler için hıtta ve çoğulu olan hıtat kelimeleri kullanılmaya başlandı (bk. HITAT ). Başlangıçta askerî amaçlarla kurulan, zaman içerisinde birer dinî, siyasî ve kültürel merkez haline gelen Basra, Kûfe, Fustat ve Kayrevan gibi şehirlerde mahalleler bu şehirlerin ortak unsurları olan cami, dârülimâre ve çarşı ekseninde kabile esasına göre birbirinden ayrı birimler halinde düzenlendi. Meselâ Kûfe’ye yerleştirilen her kabilenin ayrı bir mahallesi vardı. Özellikle Emevîler döneminden itibaren mescid ve mezarlık mahallenin diğer öğeleri olarak ortaya çıktı. Vâsıt’ı Dicle nehrinin iki yakasında kurarak dört mahalleye ayıran Haccâc, şehrin batı yakasındaki mahallelere Arap olmayanların yerleşmesine izin vermedi. Doğu yakasındaki mahallelere ise Buhara ve Mâverâünnehir tarafından getirttiği unsurları yerleştirdi (Halîfe b. Hayyât, s. 239). Benzer bir uygulama Abbâsîler devrinde Sâmerrâ’da yapılmış, Türkler ile Ferganalılar birbirinden ayrı ve uzak mahallelere yerleştirilmiştir (Ya‘kūbî, s. 258). Bazı şehirlerde kabilelere ayrılan bölümlerin arasında zamanla sokaklar teşekkül etti, bunlar hem geçit alanı hem de mahalleleri birbirinden ayıran öğeler haline geldi (Cezar, s. 89-90). İlk kurulan İslâm şehirlerinde kabilelerin şehrin farklı yerlerine yerleştirilmesi mahalleye fiziksel ve toplumsal bir birim niteliği kazandırmıştır. İbn Kesîr, bu dönemde mahallenin burada yaşayan insanlara bir yere bağlı olma hissini verdiğine ve bazan insanların mahalleye nisbet edildiğine işaret eder (el-Bidâye , XI, 338). Kabile esasına göre kurulan Basra’nın zamanla küçüldüğü ve iki mahallesinin Arap unsurlara, bir mahallesinin de Arap olmayan unsurlara ait olduğu görülmektedir. Siyasî ve ekonomik tercihler merkeze alınarak kurulan Bağdat’ta ise mahalle ve semtler etnik kökenler ve mesleklere göre teşkil edilmiştir. Şehirlerde bu şekilde gerçekleştirilen yerleşimler belirli bir kimliği olan şehir birimlerinin gelişmesini sağladı. Kabile ve etnik gruplara dayanan bu sistem mahallelerde içtimaî, meslekî ve dinî grupların oluşturulmasıyla devam etti.
Yeni kurulan şehirlerden daha çok eski şehirlerde yeni düzenlemelerin yapıldığı Endülüs’te müslümanların kenar mahallelere yerleştirildiği görülmektedir. IV. (X.) yüzyılda yedi kapıyla dışarıya açılan başşehir Kurtuba’nın (Córdoba) içinde yirmi bir mahalle varken şehrin kenarında çoğunluğunu yerli müslümanların (müvelledûn) oluşturduğu mahallelerin sayısı yirmi birdi. İbn Havkal, Sicilya’da Palermo şehrinde dört mahallenin bulunduğunu ve bunlardan Hâlisâ’nın etrafının surlarla çevrili olduğunu, daha çok Slav kölelerin (sakālibe) oturduğu mahallenin ise denizden geniş bir duvarla ayrıldığını kaydeder (Ṣûretü’l-arż , s. 119).
Müslümanların idaresi altına giren Ortadoğu’daki tarihî şehirler herhangi bir değişikliğe uğramadan eski düzenlerini ve belirli özelliklerini korurken yeni unsurlarla desteklenerek yeniden yapılandırıldı. Şehirler dinî ve etnik yapılarına göre bazan duvarlarla da ayrılan mahallelere bölündü. Meselâ Dımaşk’ın kuzeydoğusunda hıristiyan, güneydoğusunda yahudi ve batı yakasında müslüman mahalleleri yer alıyordu.
İslâm fetihleri İran ve Türkistan şehirlerinde birtakım değişikliklere sebep oldu, bunun sonucunda İç Asya’da şehirler V. (XI.) yüzyılda belirli bir tipe kavuştu. Sur içine alınan Türkistan şehirleri mahallelere bölünerek her meslek sahibi ayrı bir mahalleye yerleştirildi. Sosyal ve ekonomik şartlar da bu uygulamaya uygun düşmüş, meslek gruplarının ayrı mahallelerde toplanması XI-XII. yüzyıl Türkistan şehirlerinin ayırt edici bir özelliği haline gelmiştir (Cezar, s. 376-378). XIV. yüzyıl seyyahlarından İbn Battûta’nın farklı etnik köken, din ve mesleklere mensup insanların surlarla çevrilmiş mahallerinde yaşadıklarını kaydetmesi (Tuḥfetü’n-nüẓẓâr , I, 394) bu uygulamanın yerleştiğini göstermektedir. İslâm’ın ilk dönemlerinde ve Ortaçağ’da mahallelerin fizikî yapılarının tamamlayıcı unsuru olan kuyuların yerini (İbn Şebbe, I, 152, 159) Osmanlılar’la birlikte mahalle çeşmeleri almıştır.
XI. yüzyılın sonlarından itibaren Türk kavimlerinin Anadolu’ya yerleşmeye başlamasıyla birlikte şehir ve kasabalarda giderek yeni bir yerleşme modeli ortaya çıktı. İlk dönemlerde Bizans’tan intikal eden yerleşim şekli genellikle korunurken zamanla gelişmeye paralel olarak yeni bir yapılanma kendini gösterdi. Yeni nüfusun gelmesiyle birlikte Anadolu’da eski Bizans şehirleri gelişmeye, bu arada yeni şehirler oluşmaya başladı. Bu süreç Anadolu’nun Türkleşmesi ile sonuçlandı.
Sosyal Yapı ve Yönetim. İslâm şehirlerinde mahallelerin oluşmasında dinin önemli bir etken olduğu görülmektedir. Bu bağlamda mahalle, “aynı mescidde ibadet eden cemaatin aileleriyle birlikte yerleştiği şehir kesimi” şeklinde tanımlanmıştır (Ergenç, Osm.Ar. , IV [1984], s. 69). Bazı Batılı araştırmacılar, çeşitli dinî ve etnik gruplara göre şehrin bölge ve semtlere ayrılmasının bir İslâm şehrinin en önemli özelliği olduğunu vurgulamışlardır. Tarihî şehirlerin yanı sıra yeni kurulan Kayrevan ve Vâsıt gibi şehirlerde de gayri müslimlere ait mahalleler vardı. Şehirlerin din unsuruna göre kısım veya mahallelere ayrılması insanların sosyal, ekonomik ve siyasî tercihlerini kendilerinin yaparak ayrı bir yaşama alanı belirlemelerine imkân sağlamıştır. Anadolu’da çeşitli etnik köken ve dinlere mensup insanlar şehirlerde kendi özel mahallelerinde oturuyorlardı. Meselâ Selçuklular döneminde Konya’nın sur içerisindeki alanı Türk ikamet mahalleleri iken gayri müslim mahalleleri sur dışında bulunuyordu (Baykara, s. 46-48). Bununla birlikte müslümanların idaresinde kendi mahallelerinde yaşayan farklı din ve ırktan insanların bulundukları şehirlerde, özellikle de Anadolu’da bu durum hiçbir zaman bir ayırımcılığa dönüşmemiştir. Osmanlı devrinde farklı dinlere mensup insanlar çoğunluğu müslüman olan mahallelerde, meselâ Lübnan, İstanbul ve Bosna’da “komşu” olarak kendilerine yer bulabilmişlerdir. Osmanlı tahrir kayıtları, bazı Anadolu ve Rumeli şehirlerinde müslüman ve gayri müslim unsurların aynı mahallede oturduklarını açıkça göstermektedir. Bunun dışında bazı meslek grupları kendi mesleklerinin adını taşıyan mahallelerde (Vezneciler, Çıkrıkçılar) oturmuşlardır.
Bazı araştırmacılar tarafından plansız şehirleşme örneği olarak görülen çıkmaz sokaklar yabancıların girişini engellediği gibi mahallede yaşayanların mahremiyet ve güvenliklerinin sağlanmasını da kolaylaştırmaktadır. Toplumsal hayatın bütün ihtiyaçlarının karşılandığı her mahalle çıkmaz sokaklara açılan bir ana caddeyle bölünüyor ve bu cadde sağlam yapılarla kapatılabiliyordu. Mahallelerin duvarla ayrılması usulü müslüman Araplar tarafından İran’a da götürülmüştür (Barthold, s. 23).
Şehirlerin savunmasını kolaylaştırmak maksadıyla yapılan surların yanında mahalle ile semtleri birbirinden ayıran kapılar vardı ve mahalleler bu kapılara göre adlandırılıyordu. Herhangi bir ayaklanma esnasında şehrin diğer mahalleleriyle bağlantısını kesmeyi amaçlayan ve mahalleleri şehir kapılarına göre gruplandırmaya dayanan, Dımaşk, Kahire ve Semerkant ile erken Osmanlı döneminde Kayseri’de örnekleri görülen bu uygulamaya daha önceki dönemde Anadolu’da rastlanmamaktadır (Baykara, s. 49). Bu bakımdan Anadolu’da mahallenin XIII. yüzyıldan itibaren daha yaygın bir görünüm arzettiği söylenebilir.
Klasik İslâm şehirlerinde ticaret ve ikamet alanları birbirinden ayrılmıştır. Bu durumun genellikle özel ve kamu alanlarının ayrılması ihtiyacından doğduğu ileri sürülmekteyse de aslında bu ayrışma devletin vatandaşlarının günlük hayatlarıyla yakından ilgilenmemesi sonucu ortaya çıkmış, böylece mahalleler muhtar bir hüviyet elde etmiştir. Zira devletin kontrol mekanizması çoğunlukla ticarî alanlarda ve merkezde kendini gösterirken mahalleler kendi işlerini kendileri yerine getirmekte, bu da mahalle halkı arasındaki dayanışmayı arttırmaktaydı.
Osmanlılar’da bazı grupların toplumun bütününden ayrı bir mahalleye kapanmasının onun Osmanlı öncesi İslâm şehirlerinde görüldüğü kadar katı olmadığı, Osmanlı klasik döneminde dinî ve etnik grupların şehirlerde birbirine kapalı cemaatler halinde yaşamadığı bilinmektedir. Öte yandan şehrin ticaret ve sanat kesiminde kendini gösteren mesleki gruplaşmaların mahallelere yansımadığı, bir mahallede boyacı, ekmekçi, berber, kalaycı gibi çeşitli mesleklerden insanların yaşadığı arşiv belgelerinden anlaşılmaktadır.
Mahalleler, Emevîler ve Abbâsîler döneminde “reis” ve “şeyh” adı verilen kimseler tarafından yönetilirdi. Reisler valiler tarafından görevlendiriliyordu, şeyhleri ise hükümet tayin etmiyorsa da onları tanıyordu. Yönetim, bu kişiler sayesinde mahallede bulunan kabileyi denetim altına alarak kontrol ediyor, kabileleri birbirine karşı dengede tutuyordu. Bölgenin meselelerinden haberdar oluyor, kıtlık ve felâket zamanlarında gerekli yardımlar yapılıyor ve şüpheli şahıslar belirlenebiliyordu. Ortaçağ’da özellikle başşehirlerdeki mahallelere bazı özel görevlilerin tahsis edildiği, aşevleri açıldığı vb. sosyal uygulamaların yapıldığı görülmektedir (İbn Kesîr, XII, 136; XIII, 170). 380’de (990) Bağdat mahallelerinde artan hırsızlık olayları üzerine mahalle halkının bir kumandanın emrinde teşkilâtlanarak hırsızlarla mücadele etmeye başladığı kaydedilmektedir (İbn Kesîr, XI, 329). Suriye ve Irak şehirlerinde IV-VI. (X-XII.) yüzyıllarda görülen mahallî milis kuvvetleri ahdâs teşkilâtının yerini IX. (XV.) yüzyılın sonlarına doğru Memlük Devleti’nin zayıflamasına paralel olarak “zuar” adı verilen teşkilât aldı. Özel kıyafetleri olan gençlerden meydana gelen bu teşkilât üyelerinin mahallenin idaresinde rol oynadıkları ve zaman zaman mahalle halkını merkezî idareye karşı ayaklandırdıkları görülmektedir (Lapidus, s. 153-155).
Osmanlı şehirlerinde mahallenin en önemli özelliği temel yönetim birimi olmasıdır. Vergi yükümlüsü reâyâ tahrir defterlerine ve diğer vergi kayıtlarına bulundukları mahallelere göre ismen yazılmış, oturdukları binaların hangi mahalle sınırları içinde bulunduğu belirlenmiştir. Mahalle halkı birbirine müteselsilen kefildir, yani mahallelerinde meydana gelen bir olayın aydınlığa kavuşturulmasında ve doğan bir zararın karşılanmasında ortaklaşa sorumludur (Ergenç, Osm.Ar. , IV [1984], s. 74). Mahallenin tanımı yapılırken bu sosyal durum göz önüne alınmış, genel hatlarıyla “üyelerinin ortak bir mâbedde ibadet ettikleri ve nüfusu yaklaşık 1000 kişiden oluşan yerleşim birimi” olarak belirtilmiştir (Mantran, s. 71). 1871 tarihli Osmanlı vilâyet kanununda mahallelerdeki ev sayısı dikkate alınarak “en az elli hâneden oluşan bir yerleşim birimi” şeklinde tarif edilmiştir (Karpat, IX/3 [1978], s. 248). Ancak bu tanımlar genelleştirilebilecek bir özellik taşımamaktadır. Osmanlı tahrir kayıtlarının incelenmesi, mahalle biriminin belirli bir nüfus ölçüsü içerisine konabilecek derecede kategorileştirmeye izin vermemektedir. Osmanlılar’ın klasik dönemlerinden itibaren mahalle ve köy iktisadî, malî ve idarî yönden kendi içine kapalı en alt yönetim birimini oluşturmuştur. Geleneksel Osmanlı şehirlerindeki mahallenin henüz sınıf ve statü farklarının belirlenmediği fizikî bir mekân niteliğini taşıdığı, bir paşa konağının karşısında bir evkaf kâtibinin küçük bir evinin, bir ilmiye ricâlinin konağının yanı başında mahalle suyolcusunun kulübesinin bulunduğu, bu insanların statü farklılıklarına rağmen birbirleriyle konuşup görüştükleri dikkati çekmektedir.
Mahallenin idarî yapı ile bağlantısını sağlayan mahalle görevlilerinin en önemli yardımcıları, Emevîler döneminden itibaren yaygınlaşmaya başlayan mahalle mescidlerinde görev yapan imamlardı. Selçuklular devrinde mahallenin âyan ve ahîleriyle iyi geçinmek zorunda olan imamlar etkinliklerini sürdürüyorlardı. Osmanlılar’da XIX. yüzyılın ilk yarısına kadar müslüman mahallelerinin sorumlu yöneticisi imam, gayri müslim mahallelerinin yöneticisi haham veya papazdı. İmam, padişah beratı ile tayin edilen ve beldenin mülkî ve beledî âmiri olan kadının temsilciliğini üstlenen bir memurdu. Haham veya papaz hahambaşı veya patrikhânenin temsilcisiydi. Mahallede meydana gelen doğum, ölüm, evlenme gibi olayları kaydetmek imamın göreviydi. Mahallede her şey onun iznine bağlıydı. Bir kimsenin mahalleye yerleşebilmesi için mahalle sakinlerinden birinin ve imamın kefaleti şarttı. İmamın en önemli görevi mahalle halkına vergilerin paylaştırılması ve toplanması işini yürütmekti. Bu görevleri imamların nüfuzunu arttırıyordu. Ancak onların bu görevlerini hakkıyla yerine getirdiklerini söylemenin zor olduğu kaydedilmektedir (Ortaylı, s. 106-107). 1827’de Dersaâdet ve Bilâd-ı Selâse ahalisinin erkek nüfusunun sayımı yapılmış, nüfusun artmasının, işsizlik ve serseriliğin önlenmesi için şehre giriş çıkışlar kontrol altına alındığında imamların denetimindeki mürûr tezkirelerinde yolsuzluk yapıldığı anlaşılınca her mahalleye iki muhtar tayin edilmiştir. XIX. yüzyıl ıslahatlarıyla mahalle ve köylerde muhtarlık teşkilâtı kurulmaya başlanınca imama göre muhtar daha yetkili bir yönetici konumuna gelmiştir. Mahalle muhtarlıklarının kurulmasına ilk olarak İstanbul’da başlanmış, muhtarlıklar yaygınlaşınca vergilerin salınması ve toplanması, mahallelerin güvenlik işleri ve belediye hizmetleri muhtarlara bırakılmıştır. Muhtar bütün mahallenin kefili, imam da muhtarın kefiliydi. Tanzimat’a kadar mütesellimler tarafından denetlenen muhtarlar bu tarihten sonra muhtemelen muhassıllar ve zaptiye âmirlerince denetlenmiştir. 1864 tarihli Vilâyet Nizamnâmesi’nde en az elli hâne bir mahalle olarak kabul edilmiş, ihtiyar meclisleri kurulmuş, şehirlerdeki mahalle muhtarlıkları zaptiye âmirlerince, köy muhtarları kaymakamlarca denetlenmeye başlanmıştır (Ortaylı, a.g.e. , s. 109). Mahalle sakinlerinin başvurusu ve kadının resmî yazısı ile mahalleye tayin edilen bekçiler imamların ve muhtarların emrinde mahallenin güvenlik işleriyle meşgul olurlardı.
Cumhuriyet’ten sonra 1934 yılında çıkarılan 2295 sayılı kanunla belediye teşkilâtı olan yerlerde mahalle muhtarlıkları ve ihtiyar heyetleri kaldırılmış, muhtarın yürüttüğü görevler belediyeye, zâbıtaya ve diğer dairelere verilmiş, aynı yıl hazırlanan bir yönetmelikle bu görevlerin kimler tarafından ne şekilde yürütüleceği belirlenmiştir. 15 Nisan 1944 tarih ve 4541 sayılı, Şehir ve Kasabalarda Mahalle Muhtar ve İhtiyar Heyetleri Teşkiline Dair Kanun’la mahalle muhtarlıkları yeniden kurulmuştur.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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Bilal Eryılmaz, Yerel Yönetimlerin Yeniden Yapılanması , İstanbul 1997, s. 200, 201, 207, 212.
Süreyyâ Fârûkī, Osmanlı Kültürü ve Gündelik Yaşam (trc. Elif Kılıç), İstanbul 1998, s. 165-167.
Feridun Emecen, “Osmanlılarda Yerleşik Hayat, Şehirliler ve Köylüler”, Osmanlı , Ankara 1999, IV, 91-97.
M. M. Cerosi, Osmanlı Kenti. Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda 18. ve 19. Yüzyıllarda Kent Uygarlığı ve Mimarisi (trc. Aslı Ataöv), İstanbul 1999, s. 70-72.
İlber Ortaylı, Tanzimat Devrinde Osmanlı Mahallî İdareleri (1840-1880) , Ankara 2000, s. 106-110.
Kemal Beydilli, Osmanlı Döneminde İmamlar ve Bir İmamın Günlüğü , İstanbul 2001, s. 5-11.
Musa Çadırcı, “Türkiye’de Muhtarlık Teşkilatının Kurulması Üzerine Bir İnceleme”, TTK Belleten , XXXIV (1970), s. 407-420.
D. F. Eickelman, “Is there an Islamic City? The Making of a Quarter in a Moroccan Town”, IJMES , V/3 (1974), s. 274-294.
Kemal Karpat, “Ottoman Population Records and the Census of 1881/82-1893”, a.e. , IX/3 (1978), s. 237-274.
Janet Abu-Lughod, “The Islamic City: Historic Myth, Islamic Essence and Contemporary Relevance”, a.e. , XIX/2 (1987), s. 155-176.
Halil İnalcık, “İstanbul: An Islamic City”, Journal of Islamic Study , I, Oxford 1990, s. 13-19.
Cem Behar, “Kasap İlyas Mahallesi: İstanbul’un Bir Mahallesinin Sosyal ve Demografik Portresi, 1546-1585”, İstanbul Araştırmaları , sy. 4, İstanbul 1998, s. 7-110.
Tahsin Özcan, “Osmanlı Mahallesi: Sosyal Kontrol ve Kefalet Sistemi”, Marife , I, Konya 2001, s. 129-151.
Fatma Acun, “A Portrait of the Ottoman Cities”, MW , XCII/3-4 (2002), s. 255-285.
Ch. Pellat, “Mahalla”, EI2 (İng.) , V, 1220-1221.
M. E. Bonine, “Cities of the Islamic Period”, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaelogy in the Near East , New York 1997, II, 35-36.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2003 yılında Ankara’da basılan 27. cildinde, 323-326 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.