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MAKALE Skip to content Belli bir konuda inceleme, açıklama ve yorumlama niteliği taşıyan gazete ve dergi yazısı.
1/3 Müellif: RAHMİ ER Bölüme Git
Sözlükte “söylemek; söz” anlamındaki kavlden türemiş mimli masdar olan ve aynı mânayı ifade eden makāle kelimesi önceleri sözlü anlatım için kullanılı…
2/3 Müellif: ALİM KAHRAMAN Bölüme Git
TÜRK EDEBİYATI. XIX. yüzyıldan önceki dönemde yazma kitaplarda makale adıyla bazı yazılara rastlanmakla birlikte (Banarlı, s. 239) daha çok tasavvuf ö…
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FARS EDEBİYATI. Arapça makale, Farsça’da belirli bir konu üzerinde yazılıp söylenen şeylerin bütünü için Farsça sühan (söz), güftâr (deyiş), nevişte (…
Sözlükte “söylemek; söz” anlamındaki kavl den türemiş mimli masdar olan ve aynı mânayı ifade eden makāle kelimesi önceleri sözlü anlatım için kullanılırken giderek özel bir anlam kazanmıştır. Makale ve çoğulu makālât “Ehl-i sünnet dışındaki itikadî mezhepler ve kolları” mânasına da gelir. “Bilim, sanat, ekonomi, siyaset, din, ahlâk, toplum konularında bilgi veren ve görüş açıklayan imzalı gazete ve dergi yazısı” olarak tanımlanan makale matbaa ve gazeteciliğin ortaya çıkışıyla birlikte Batı’da doğup gelişmiş bir türdür. Klasik Arap nesrinin makāme, hitabe ve bilhassa risâle türleri de makale tarzına yakın bir nitelik taşımaktadır. Câhiz’in risâleleri, Bedîüzzaman el-Hemedânî’nin bazı risâleleriyle makāmeleri buna örnek gösterilebilir. Ayrıca Arap toplumunun meselelerini ele alan ilk Arap roman ve hikâyelerinde de makale tarzına uygun bölümlere rastlanmaktadır. Özellikle Irak’ta görülen makale ve kıssa karışımı bu türe makassa adı verilmiştir.
Bugünkü anlamıyla makale türünün Arap edebiyatındaki tarihi Arap yazılı basınının gelişmesiyle çok yakından ilgilidir. Gazeteciliğin bir gereği olarak ortaya çıkan ve ona paralel bir gelişme gösteren makalenin gelişim süreci XIX. yüzyılın ortalarında doğan Arap basın tarihinden izlenebilir. Kahire’de çıkan ilk gazete el-Veḳāʾiʿu’l-Mıṣriyye ve ardından Ravżatü’l-medâris , İstanbul’da yayımlanan el-Cevâʾib gibi gazetelerde görülen ilk makale örneklerinde yazarların klasik Arap nesrinin etkisiyle ağır bir dil ve üslûp kullandığı dikkati çekmektedir. Mustafa Sâdık er-Râfiî bu tarzın önde gelen temsilcilerindendir. XIX. yüzyılın son çeyreğine gelindiğinde bu temayül yavaş yavaş terkedilmeye başlanmıştır. Rifâa et-Tahtâvî’nin el-Veḳāʾiʿu’l-Mıṣriyye ’deki makalelerinde olduğu gibi özellikle geniş halk kitlelerine hitap etmeyi hedefleyen siyasî makale yazarları daha ziyade millî ve dinî konuları işledikleri makalelerinde secilerden, beyân ve bedî‘ sanatlarından kendilerini sıyırarak yalın, anlaşılır bir dil ve üslûba yönelmişlerdir. Bu makaleler halk üzerinde büyük etki yapmış ve bunun sonucunda Mısır’da yabancı işgaline karşı Urâbî Paşa ayaklanması baş göstermiştir. Abdullah Nedîm, Muhammed Abduh ve Cemâleddîn-i Efgānî gibi zamanın makale yazarları bu ayaklanmayı başlatanlarla birlikte yargılanmışlardır.
Suriyeli gazetecilerin de Mısır’a yönelip faaliyetlerini orada sürdürmeleri neticesinde Mısır Arap basınının merkezi haline gelmiştir. Urâbî Paşa ayaklanmasından sonra Mısır’ın zor şartlar içine düşmesi, ülkenin İngilizler tarafından işgali, milliyetçi ve dindar çizgide gazetelerin yanı sıra Fransız ve İngiliz çıkarlarını korumayı amaçlayan gazetelerin özellikle Suriyeli göçmen hıristiyanlar eliyle çıkarılmaya başlanması siyasî makalenin gelişimi için uygun şartlar hazırlamıştır. Mustafa Kâmil Paşa milliyetçi çizgideki el-Livâʾ gazetesinde yayımladığı makaleleriyle Mısır’da millî hareketin lideri konumuna gelirken Şeyh Ali Yûsuf dindar çizgideki el-Müʾeyyed ’de işgalci İngilizler’e karşı İslâm’ın ve Doğu’nun savunucusu olmuştur. Ülkede Fransız çıkarlarını temsil eden el-Ehrâm gazetesiyle İngiliz çıkarlarını temsil eden el-Muḳaṭṭam ’a karşı mücadele veren bu iki gazetenin yanı sıra daha ılımlı bir çizgide olan Cerîde ’nin sahibi Ahmed Lutfî es-Seyyid, yabancılara karşı haklarını savunabilmesi için halkın eğitilmesi gerektiğine yönelik makaleler yayımlamıştır.
Mısır’da 1919 devriminden sonra siyasî partilerin kurulması ve her partinin kendi sesi olan bir gazete çıkarmasıyla birlikte siyasî makale türü çok gelişmiştir. Arap dünyasının önde gelen edebiyatçıları olan Muhammed Hüseyin Heykel, Tâhâ Hüseyin, Mustafa Sâdık er-Râfiî, İbrâhim Abdülkādir el-Mâzinî, Abbas el-Akkād, Selâme Mûsâ, Ahmed Emîn, Ahmed Hasan ez-Zeyyât gibi isimlerin bu yayın organlarında kendilerine bir yer edinmelerinden sonra dil ve edebiyatın çeşitli alanlarında zengin ve nitelikli makaleler ortaya çıkmaya başlamıştır. Bu dönemin gazeteleri ve edebiyat dergilerinde Câhiliye şiirinin güvenilirliği, edebî eserde halk dili kullanımı, hatta Arap alfabesinin yerine Latin alfabesinin kullanılması gibi konularda edebî makaleler yayımlanmış, bu durum edebiyatçılar arasında edebiyatın mahiyeti açısından olduğu gibi dil açısından da klasikçi ve modernist diye adlandırılan iki grubun oluşmasına yol açmıştır.
Bazı edebiyatçılar makalelerinde Arap edebiyatının gelişimini, çeşitli dönemlerde aldığı görünümü ortaya koymaya çalışırken özellikle Batı kültürü etkisinde olanlar kendilerini sadece Arap dili ve edebiyatıyla sınırlamayıp Batı kökenli edebiyat türlerini, sanat eserinde bulunması gereken estetik değerleri konu edinmişler; makalenin alanını edebiyatı, güzel sanatları, felsefî, sosyolojik ve eleştirel kuramları içerecek şekilde genişlettikleri gibi fikrî boyutuna da derinlik kazandırmışlardır. Daha sonra kitap haline getirilen bu tür makalelerin çağdaş Arap edebiyatında önemli bir yeri vardır. Tâhâ Hüseyin’in Ḥadîs̱ü’l-erbiʿâʾ ı, Heykel’in Fî Evḳāti’l-ferâġ ’ı, Akkād’ın Fuṣûl ’ü, Râfiî’nin Taḥte râyeti’l-Ḳurʾân ’ı, Mâzinî’nin Ḥaṣâdü’l-heşîm ’i, Ahmed Emîn’in Feyżü’l-ḫâṭır ’ı, Zeyyât’ın Vaḥyü’r-risâle ’si bunlar arasında zikredilebilir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Abdüllatîf Hamza, eṣ-Ṣıḥâfe ve’l-edeb fî Mıṣr , Kahire 1955.
M. Yûsuf Necm, Fennü’l-maḳāle , Beyrut 1957.
Abdülcebbâr Dâvûd, Ruvvâdü’l-maḳāleti’l-edebiyye fi’l-edebi’l-Irâḳıyyi’l-ḥadîs̱ , Bağdad 1975.
Enîs el-Makdisî, el-Fünûnü’l-edebiyye ve aʿlâmühâ , Beyrut 1980, s. 225-235.
Ahmed Heykel, Teṭavvürü’l-edebi’l-ḥadîs̱ fî Mıṣr , Kahire 1983, s. 70-75, 374-397.
Bekrî Şeyh Emîn, el-Ḥareketü’l-edebiyye fi’l-Memleketi’l-ʿArabiyyeti’s-Suʿûdiyye , Beyrut 1986, s. 525-546.
M. Ahmed el-Garb, ʿAni’l-luġa ve’l-edeb ve’n-naḳd , Beyrut, ts., s. 171-175.
Şevkī Dayf, el-Edebü’l-ʿArabiyyü’l-muʿâṣır fî Mıṣr , Kahire, ts., s. 205-207.
İbrâhim es-Seâfîn, Teṭavvürü’r-rivâyeti’l-ʿArabiyyeti’l-ḥadîs̱e fî bilâdi’ş-Şâm: 1870-1967 , Beyrut 1407/1987, s. 31-50.
Ch. Vial, “Maḳāla”, EI2 (İng.) , VI, 90-91.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2003 yılında Ankara’da basılan 27. cildinde, 407-408 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.
TÜRK EDEBİYATI. XIX. yüzyıldan önceki dönemde yazma kitaplarda makale adıyla bazı yazılara rastlanmakla birlikte (Banarlı, s. 239) daha çok tasavvuf önderlerinin bir kısım sözlerini ya da sohbetlerini derleyen ve “makālât” adıyla tanınan eserler de bulunmaktadır. Bunların içinde Hacı Bektâş-ı Velî’ye izâfe edilen, aslı Arapça Maḳālât en tanınmışlarındandır. Eser, tamamı elde bulunmayan Arapça aslıyla değil nesir çevirisi ve bundan yararlanılarak Hatiboğlu’nca hazırlanmış manzum metni yoluyla meşhur olmuştur. Makālât-ı İsmail Hakkı (Bulak 1257; İstanbul 1288), Makālât-ı Hazret-i İmâm Ca‘ferü’s-Sâdık (İstanbul 1288) gibi aynı bağlamda ele alınabilecek basılı eserler de bulunmaktadır (Özege, III, 1000-1001).
Diğer milletlerde olduğu gibi Türk yayın hayatında da modern anlamıyla makale gazeteyle beraber XIX. yüzyılda ortaya çıkmıştır. Bunların ilk örnekleri 1840’lı yıllarda ilk Türkçe gazetelerden Cerîde-i Havâdis ’te ilim, ahlâk ve edebiyat üzerine bir kısmı imzasız olarak kaleme alınan metinlerdir. 1860 yılından itibaren Şinâsi’nin, Agâh Efendi’yle birlikte çıkardığı Tercümân-ı Ahvâl ile daha sonra kendi başına yayımladığı Tasvîr-i Efkâr ’da (1862) bazılarına imza koyarak yazdığı başmakaleler, hem bu türün ilk yetkin örnekleri olması hem de siyasî ve içtimaî meselelere eğilmesiyle dikkat çekmektedir. Aynı dönemde Ziyâ Paşa Muhbir ve Hürriyet , Nâmık Kemal Tasvîr-i Efkâr , Hürriyet ve İbret , Ali Suâvi Muhbir ve Ulûm gazetelerinde tartışmalara da konu olan siyasî ve edebî muhtevalı makaleler yazmışlardır. Ahmed Midhat Efendi, Ebüzziya Mehmed Tevfik, Şemseddin Sâmi, Muallim Nâci ve Beşir Fuad aynı devirde makale türünde eser vermiş diğer yazarlardandır. Bu makalelerin bir kısmı daha sonra kitap halinde basılmıştır. Şinâsi’nin Müntehabât-ı Tasvîr-i Efkâr (seçen Ebüzziya Tevfik, İstanbul 1311), Makaleler (haz. Fevziye Abdullah Tansel, İstanbul 1960); Nâmık Kemal’in Makālât-ı Siyâsiyye ve Edebiyye (İstanbul 1327), Nâmık Kemal ve İbret Gazetesi (haz. Mustafa Nihat Özön, İstanbul 1938); Ahmed Midhat’ın Müntehabât-ı Ahmed Midhat (I-II, İstanbul 1306-1307); Muallim Nâci’nin Yazmış Bulundum (İstanbul 1301), Muallim (İstanbul 1303) gibi eserleri bunların belli başlıcalarıdır. Bu dönemde makaleden daha çok ilim, ahlâk, edebiyat ve siyaset konularıyla ilgili gazete yazıları anlaşılmıştır.
Bu tarz makale yazarlığı yanında Mecmûa-i Fünûn ve Hazîne-i Evrâk gibi ilk ilmî muhtevalı dergilerle başlayan makale yazarlığının II. Abdülhamid devrinde dergilerin çoğalmasıyla mahiyeti genişlemiş ve gelişmiştir. Daha sistematik hale gelen edebî tenkit, sanat ve sanat felsefesi konuları etrafında Edebiyât-ı Cedîde dönemi makale yazarları arasında Cenab Şahabeddin (Nesr-i Harb Nesr-i Sulh , İstanbul 1334; Evrâk-ı Eyyâm , İstanbul 1331), Tevfik Fikret (Dil ve Edebiyat Yazıları , Ankara 1987) ve Hüseyin Câhid (Kavgalarım , İstanbul 1326) yer almaktadır.
Özellikle II. Meşrutiyet’ten sonra Avrupa ilim ve metotlarının Türkiye’ye aktarılması çalışmalarının belli bir safhaya girmesiyle Rıza Tevfik (Rıza Tevfik’in Tekke ve Halk Edebiyatı ile İlgili Makaleleri , haz. Abdullah Uçman, Ankara 1982; Rıza Tevfik’in Sanat ve Estetikle İlgili Yazıları I , haz. Abdullah Uçman, İstanbul 2000), Ziya Gökalp (Makaleler I-IX , Ankara 1976-1980) ve M. Fuad Köprülü (Edebiyat Araştırmaları , Ankara 1966) gibi ilim ve fikir adamlarınca dünyadaki örneklerine uygun, dipnotlu, kaynakçalı ilmî makaleler de yayımlanmaya başlanmıştır.
Bu arada ilimle uğraşan belli bir kesimi ilgilendiren alan dergilerdeki araştırma ürünü makaleler dışında gazete ve dergilerde siyaset, edebiyat ve sosyal hayatın problemleri başta olmak üzere her konuda başmuharrirler ve diğerleri tarafından makale yazarlığı bir meslek haline dönüşerek Cumhuriyet’ten sonra da devam etmiştir. Tanınmış makale yazarları arasında Süleyman Nazif, Ali Kemal (Makaleler , haz. Hülya Pala, İstanbul 1997), Abdullah Cevdet, Mehmed Âkif Ersoy (Mehmed Âkif Ersoy’un Makaleleri , haz. Abdülkerim – Nuran Abdulkadiroğlu, Ankara 1990), Yahya Kemal Beyatlı (Eğil Dağlar , İstanbul 1975; Edebiyâta Dâir , İstanbul 1971; Târih Musâhabeleri , İstanbul 1975), Ahmet Ağaoğlu, Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu, Refik Halit Karay, Falih Rıfkı Atay, Necmettin Sadak, Nizamettin Nazif Tepedelenlioğlu, Ali Naci Karacan, Hakkı Tarık Us, Refi Cevat Ulunay gibi isimler bulunmaktadır.
1960’lı yıllardan sonra gazetelerde başmakale formu alışılmış özelliğini yavaş yavaş kaybederek bu yıllara kadar fıkra denilen türle birleşip köşe yazısı şeklinde yaygınlaşmıştır. Bu tip fıkra ve köşe yazarları arasında Burhan Felek, Necip Fazıl, Peyami Safa, Abdi İpekçi, Bedii Faik ve Ahmet Kabaklı sayılabilir.
Günümüzde makale denildiğinde belli ölçülere göre yazılmış, dergilerde yer alan ilmî ve fikrî yazılar anlaşılmaktadır. Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar, Hilmi Ziya Ülken, Mümtaz Turhan, Remzi Oğuz Arık, Cemil Meriç, Nurettin Topçu, Mehmet Kaplan, Erol Güngör bu tür yazılarıyla tanınmış isimler arasında yer alır. Süreli yayınlardaki ilmî makalelerin tesbiti yolunda atılan en önemli adım, her zaman düzenli çıkmamış olsa bile 1952’de Türkiye Makaleler Bibliyografyası ’nın yayımlanmaya başlanmasıdır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Nihad Sâmi Banarlı, Edebiyat Bilgileri , İstanbul 1948, s. 238-239.
Özege, Katalog , III, 1000-1001.
Cevdet Kudret, Örneklerle Edebiyat Bilgileri II , İstanbul 1980, s. 372.
Fevziye Abdullah Tansel, İyi ve Doğru Yazma Usulleri III , İstanbul 1987, s. 280-282.
P. Dumont, “Maḳāla”, EI2 (İng.) , VI, 92-96.
“Başmuharrir”, İst.A , IV, 2199-2201.
Abdullah Uçman, “Makale”, TDEA , VIII, 124.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2003 yılında Ankara’da basılan 27. cildinde, 408 numaralı sayfada yer almıştır.
FARS EDEBİYATI. Arapça makale, Farsça’da belirli bir konu üzerinde yazılıp söylenen şeylerin bütünü için Farsça sühan (söz), güftâr (deyiş), nevişte (yazılı şey) ve Arapça kelâm, kavl kelimeleriyle birlikte kullanılmıştır. Kelimenin zamanla anlam değişikliğine uğradığı görülmektedir. Nitekim bir sûfînin meclislerinde söylediği, müridleri tarafından tesbit edilen sözlerini içeren kitaplara bunun çoğulu olan “makālât” denilmiş (Maḳālât-ı Şems-i Tebrîzî , Maḳālât-ı ʿAlâʾüddevle-i Simnânî ), Nizâmî-i Arûzî’nin Çehâr Maḳāle ’sinde olduğu gibi bir kitabın bölümlerine de aynı ad verilmiştir. Makale bu anlamları dışında Fars edebiyatında “konuşma, söyleşi, tartışma, ağız kavgası” mânalarında da kullanılmıştır.
Fars edebiyatında makale türü XIX. yüzyıla gelinceye kadar daha çok tavsife, temsile ve öğüt vermeye dayanıyor, bu sebeple de kanıt getirmeye ve bu kanıtlara dayanarak sonuç çıkarmaya daha az yer veriliyordu. Kaçar hânedanı döneminde İran Avrupa teknolojisi, Batı bilimi ve yeni düşünce akımları ile tanıştı, başta siyasî akımlar olmak üzere birçok yeni düşünce ülkeye girdi. Yeni kurulan dârülfünun bu akım ve düşüncelerin yayılmasında etkili oldu. Yazarların, baskıcı rejime karşı bir özgürlük ve ilerleme bilincinin doğmasını sağlamak amacıyla makalelerini halkın kolayca anlayabileceği bir dille yazmaya çalışmaları dilde sadeleşmeye yol açtı.
Cemâleddîn-i Efgānî, Ahundzâde Mirza Feth Ali ve Melkum Han’ın sert eleştiriler ihtiva eden makaleleri İran’da meşrutiyet döneminin başında yeni düşünce ve hareketlerin doğmasında etkili oldu. Bunların dışında Ali Ekber Dihhudâ’nın “Çerend ü Perend” başlıklı gazete makaleleriyle Seyyid Muhammed Ali Cemalzâde’nin “Yekî Bûd Yekî Nebûd” adlı makaleler toplamı edebî ve sosyal eleştiride gerçekçiliğe ve dilde sadeliğe yönelen bir akımın doğmasına zemin oluşturdu. Sade yazma zevki anlaşılması güç Arapça kelimelerin dilden atılmasını sağladı. Zamanla Farsça makaleler teknik ve muhteva bakımından İngilizce’de “article”, Fransızca’da “essai” denilen makalelerin düzeyine ulaştı. Meşrutiyet döneminden sonra halkın siyasal ve sosyal sorunlara karşı ilgisi artınca makalelerin konularını daha çok vatan severlik ve toplumsal eleştiriler oluşturmaya başladı.
Fars edebiyatında makaleleri tarihî gelişim sürecini göz önünde bulundurarak konularına göre şu gruplara ayırmak mümkündür: 1. Edebî makaleler. Klasik İran edebiyatında Hâkānî-yi Şirvânî’nin münşeatındaki mektuplar, Hamîdî’nin Maḳāmât ’ında görülen konularla Sa‘dî-i Şîrâzî’nin Gülistân ’ındaki hikâyeler, modern İran edebiyatında Abdülhüseyn-i Zerrînkûb’un Naḳş ber Âb adlı eserindeki “Der Cüst u Cûy-i İnsân” başlıklı makalesi bu türün örnekleridir. 2. Araştırmaya yönelik ilmî makaleler. Bir olay, bir eser, bir kişi veya bir konu hakkındaki incelemeler bu grupta yer alır. Makale niteliğini taşıyan yazılar bir araya getirildiğinde “makālât” veya “mecmûa-i makālât” adını alır; Maḳālât-ı Taḳīzâde , Maḳālât-ı Kesrevî gibi. Bir araya getirilen seçme makalelere “güzîne-i makālehâ” denilir. Bazı makale mecmuaları ise içindeki makale sayısına göre adlandırılır; Bist Maḳāle-i Ḳazvînî , Bist Maḳāle-i Taḳīzâde , Çend Maḳāle-i Naṣrullāh-i Felsefî gibi. 3. Gazete ve dergilerde yayımlanan makaleler. Özellikle gazetelerin ilk sayfasında yayımlanıyorsa “sermakāle”, birkaç sayı devam ediyorsa “makālât-ı müselsel” veya “silsile-i makālât” adı verilen bu tür makaleler siyasî, iktisadî, kültürel ve tarihî nitelikteki konuların yorumlamalarını içerir. Bunlara nakd (tenkit), tebliğ (propaganda) ve âgehî (ilân) gibi türler de eklenebilir. 4. Hikâye yönü ağır basan makaleler. II (VIII) ve III. (IX.) yüzyıllara kadar uzanan bu tür makaleler daha çok halk hikâyeleri tarzında manzum ve mensur olarak yazılmıştır. Merzübânnâme , Ṭûṭînâme , Baḫtiyârnâme ile Hint kökenli Kelîle ve Dimne bu türün ilk örnekleridir. 5. Edebî eserlerle ilgili eleştiri makaleleri. 6. Mizah ve eğlence yönü ağır basan makaleler. 7. Ahlâkî ve dinî konularla ilgili makaleler.
İran edebiyat, tarih ve kültürüne dair eserler için bibliyografyalar hazırlanmıştır. Bunlardan Îrec Efşâr’ın derlediği, 1915 yılından itibaren yazılan makalelerin bir bölümünü içine alan Fihrist-i Maḳālât-i Fârsî ile (üç cilt) Mâhyâr-i Nevâ’nın Kitâb-ı Şuʿarâ-yi Îrân (yedi cilt) adlı eserleri önemlidir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Mehdî Mâhavzî, Bergüzîde-i Naẓm u Nes̱r-i Fârsî yâ Fârsî u Nigâriş , Tahran 1369 ş./1990, I-II.
Zebân u Nigâriş-i Fârsî , Kum 1369/1990 hş., s. 69-100.
Hüseyin Rezmcû, Envâʿ-i Edebî ve Âs̱âr-ı Ân der Zebân-ı Fârsî , Meşhed 1372 hş., s. 221-223.
Îrec Efşâr, “Maḳāla”, EI2 (İng.) , VI, 91-92.
Dihhudâ, Luġatnâme , XXV, 880-881.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2003 yılında Ankara’da basılan 27. cildinde, 408-409 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.