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MAKAM Skip to content Türk ve Arap mûsikisinin en temel özelliğini belirleyen mûsiki terimi.
Sözlükte “durulan yer, durak” mânasına gelen kelime, Türk mûsikisi tarihinde ve onun etkili olduğu coğrafyalarda kullanılan müzik sistemlerinin temelini teşkil eden bir kavramdır; geniş tarihi boyunca başka adlarla da anıldığı Doğu mûsikisine çok özel bir anlam ve kimlik kazandıran önemli bir yapılanmayı ifade eder. Bir makam mûsikisi olarak tanınan Türk mûsikisinin diğer bir temel unsuru sayılan usul bunun yanında ikinci derecede kalır. Nitekim Kur’an tilâveti, mevlid, ezan, durak, na‘t, kaside gibi dinî ve gazel gibi din dışı mûsiki formlarından çoğunun bir usulle ölçülmeksizin serbest olarak icra edildiği halde makam sisteminin dışında kalması mümkün değildir. Hint mûsikisinde raga , İran mûsikisinde destgâh adı verilen bu oluşumu ifade etmek üzere Ortaçağ döneminde edvâr kelimesi kullanılmıştır. Mûsiki nazariyesi hakkında yazılan bu dönem eserlerinde usul ve seslerin anlatımı çizilen daireler üzerinde açıklandığından bu konuda yazılan eserlere “Kitâbü’l-Edvâr” adı verilmiştir. Safiyyüddin el-Urmevî’nin (ö. 693/1294) Arapça, Hızır b. Abdullah’ın (IX./XV. yüzyıl) Türkçe olarak kaleme aldıkları Kitâbü’l-Edvâr ’larında makam yerine edvâr kelimesine yer verilmiştir.
Safiyyüddin’in sistemi özellikle Abdülkādir-i Merâgī (ö. 838/1435) ve onun takipçileri yoluyla sonraki yüzyıllarda birçok şerh yazılarak benimsenmiş ve bazı değişikliklerle XIX. yüzyılın ortalarına kadar devam etmiştir. Bu eserlerde de makam yerine “edvâr, âvâze (âgāze), şube, terkib” kelimeleri kullanılmıştır. “Cins” adı verilen üç küçük aralığa bölünmüş dörtlüler yan yana gelerek devirleri meydana getirir. Bu devirlerin yanında daha dar bir alan içinde yer alan ezgi örneklerine âvâze denilmiş, ezgi seyirleri başlangıç veya karar perdeleri göz önüne alınarak şubeler halinde düzenlenmiş, çeşitli cins ve âvâzeler değişik şekillerde bir araya getirilip bazı terkipler (birleşik makamlar) oluşturulmuştur. Ortaçağ’dan sonra bu ayırım terkedilerek ezgi dizilerinin hepsi makam olarak anılmıştır.
Safiyyüddin’in Kitâbü’l-Edvâr ’ında açıklanan on iki devir uşşak, nevâ, bûselik, rast, ırak, ısfahan, zîrefkend, büzürg, zengûle, râhevî, hüseynî ve hicazî; altı âvâze gevâşt, nevrûz, selmek, gerdâniye, mâye ve şehnaz; dört şube yegâh, dügâh, segâh ve çârgâhtır. Kâinatın temel unsurlarıyla da ilişkilendirilen bu ses sisteminde on sekiz perde on sekiz âleme, on iki devir on iki burca, altı âvâze altı gezegene, dört şube dört unsura karşılık gösterilmiştir. Daha sonraki dönemlerde bu sayılarda değişiklikler gözlenmiştir. Ayrıca bir sekizli içinde on yedi aralık ve ilk sesin sekizlisiyle birlikte on sekiz perdenin bulunduğu esasına dayanan ses sistemi yazılı olarak ilk defa Safiyyüddin el-Urmevî tarafından ifade edilmiştir.
XX. yüzyılın başlarında, günümüzde kullanılan Türk mûsikisi sitemini belirleyen isimlerden ilki olan Hüseyin Sadeddin Arel’in makamı, “dizide veya lahinde seslerin durakla ve güçlü ile münasebetlerinden doğan hususiyet” şeklindeki tanımı ile, “bir durakla bir güçlünün etrafında bunlara bağlı olarak toplanmış seslerin umumi durumu” şeklindeki açıklaması yine de izaha muhtaçtır. Mehmet Suphi Ezgi’nin “durak ve güçlü denilen nağmelerle (sesler) dizinin diğer sesleri arasındaki münasebet cihetinden seslerin icrası” şeklindeki tarifi de bugün kapalı ve yetersiz kalmaktadır. Türk mûsikisi sisteminin oturmasında öncülük etmiş isimlerden Rauf Yektâ Bey’in, “Makam bir oluş tarzıdır; kendisini teşkil eden çeşitli nisbetlerle ve aralıkların düzenlenmesiyle vasfını belli eden mûsiki skalasının hususi şeklidir” cümlesiyle ortaya koyduğu makam tarifinde de yeterli açıklık yoktur. Ancak Rauf Yektâ Bey, “bir makamın ruhu ve hayatı” diye nitelendirdiği şartlar adıyla makamın yapısında yer alan dörtlü, beşli, dizi, asma karar gibi teşkil edici unsurlarla genişlik, başlangıç, güçlü, karar perdesi, seyir ve tam karar gibi önemli unsurları zikrederek tarifine açıklık kazandırmaya çalışmıştır.
Tariflerdeki yetersizlikleri ortadan kaldırıp bir makamı tanımlamak için, başlangıcından günümüze kadar teorik ve pratik olarak zengin bir gelişme gösteren makam yapılarının içinde yer almış belli başlı unsurları kısaca tanıtmak gerekir. Dörtlü ve Beşliler. Farklı aralıkta ve aralıklarının sıralanışı ile seslerin birbirine uzaklıkları değişik, tam olarak dört veya beş sesten oluşan kalıplardır: Çârgâh dörtlüsü, rast dörtlüsü, uşşak dörtlüsü; çârgâh beşlisi, rast beşlisi, hüseynî beşlisi gibi. Dizi. Bir dörtlü ile bir beşlinin veya bir beşli ile bir dörtlünün ardarda getirilmesinden meydana gelen sekiz sesten oluşmuş kalıplardır. Seyir. Dizide makam oluşturmak üzere belli kurallara bağlı olarak gezinmedir. Çıkıcı (durak perdesinden, durak civarından veya durağın altındaki seslerden başlayan ve tiz perdelere doğru çıkıcılık gösteren seyir), inici (tiz durak veya civarından başlayıp pest seslere doğru inicilik gösteren seyir), inici-çıkıcı (güçlü civarından başlayıp inici ve çıkıcı olarak genişleyen seyir) olmak üzere üç türlüdür. Makam seyirleri beste ve icrada son derece önemli olan ve genellikle zemin, meyan, karar adlarını taşıyan üç ana bölümde cereyan eder. Seyir çeşitleri makamların farklılaşmasında önemli bir unsur olduğundan dizileri aynı olan uşşak-bayatî-ısfahan, nevâ-tâhir, hüseynî-muhayyer gibi makamlar seyir özellikleri sebebiyle ayrı adlar almış ve değişik kimliklere sahip olmuştur. Donanım. Dizilerdeki farklı aralıklarda yer alan, o makama has olup kulakla ayırt edilebilecek çok küçük ses değişikliklerine sahip koma seslerinin gösterilmesine yarayan ve diyez, bemol adlarını alan değiştirme/ârıza işaretleri ve bunların eserin nota yazımında gösterilmesidir. Portede anahtardan hemen sonra konulan bu işaretlerden önce bemoller, sonra diyezler belirli bir sıraya göre ve ait oldukları nota çizgisi ve aralığının tam ortasından geçecek şekilde yazılır. Durak. Makam dizisinde o makama has olarak kullanabilecek en pest sese denir. Güçlü. Makamın çatısını teşkil eden, çeşnisini veren dörtlü ile beşlinin birleştiği yerdeki ortak sestir. Durak ve güçlü sesleri makamın en karakteristik perdeleridir. Kararlar. Mûsiki dilinde âdeta noktalama işaretlerinin yerini tutan ve bir müzik cümlesinin sona ereceğini/erdiğini hissettiren karakteristik sesler ve perdelerdir. Türk mûsikisi sisteminde tam karar (bir makamın en önemli perdesi olarak müziğin bitişini belirten ses), yarım karar / muvakkat karar (müzik cümlesinin biteceğini hissettirmekle beraber söylenecek bir iki söz daha olduğunu, nağmenin kısa bir süre daha devam edeceğini ifade eden perde) ve asma karar (verdiği bitiş hissi karardan daha zayıf olup her makama göre değişen birden fazla karar sesi) olmak üzere üçe ayrılır. Bir makamın oluşup tanınmasında güçlü ve durak perdeleri yanında karar perdeleri de önem taşır.
Bir makamın yüzyıllar içindeki şekillenmesinde bu unsurların birtakım kurallarla bir araya gelmesi etkili olduğundan bu bilgiler ışığında makamın derli toplu bir tarifi şu şekilde yapılabilir: “Basit makamlarda bir dörtlü ile bir beşlinin sıralı yahut sırasız olarak, birleşik makamlarda ise birden fazla dörtlü, beşli ve dizinin kulağa en hoş gelecek şekilde birbirine eklenmesiyle oluşan dizi veya dizilerde o makamın esas perdelerini teşkil eden durak, güçlü, asma karar ve kararlarla bunların üzerinde bulunan çeşniler belirtilerek belli bir seyir çeşidine uygun nağmeler meydana getirecek şekilde gezinmektir.”
Günümüzde yaygın biçimde kullanılan Arel-Ezgi nazariyatında makamlar basit, şed (göçürülmüş) ve birleşik (mürekkep) olmak üzere üçe ayrılmıştır. Sekiz sesli bir diziyle özellikleri ifade edilebilen makamlar basit, bir basit veya birleşik makamın durağından başka bir perdeye göçürülmesiyle elde edilenler şed makamlardır. Birleşik makamlar, bazıları hariç genellikle sekiz sesli bir diziyle ifade edilemeyen çok çeşnili ve çok dizili yapılardır. Ancak bu tasnifin eleştirilecek bazı yönleri vardır. Meselâ basit olarak nitelendirilen makamlarda bile küçük birer geçki kabul edilmesi gereken asma kararların yer alması bunların da birleşik duruma geldiğini göstermektedir. Ayrıca şed sayılan mâhur gibi bazı makamların yeni göçürüldükleri perdelerde bazan seyir çeşidinin farklılıkları sebebiyle yeni çeşniler kazanmış olmaları bunların da birleşik makam çehresi aldıklarını belirtir. Bu sebeple mûsiki öğreniminde kolaylık sağlayan bu üçlü tasnifin, “Türk mûsikisinde basit makam yoktur” şeklindeki görüşle birlikte değerlendirilmesi gerekir.
Öte yandan makamlar arasında bazı yakınlıklar dikkati çekmektedir. Meselâ sûzinak makamı dizisinin birinci perdesinde (rast) sûzinak, ikinci derecesinde (dügâh) karcığar, üçüncü derecesinde (segâh) hüzzam dizileri yer almaktadır. Benzer şekilde birbirinin oluşumunda bulunan ve bu sebeple aralarında yakınlık olan diğer bazı makamlar da vardır. Ancak yine de her makam, bazan seyir bazan da kullanılan özel perdeler dolayısıyla birbirinden farklı ve orijinaldir.
Türk mûsikisinde tarih boyunca 650 civarında makam kullanılmış, bunlardan ancak yarısının örneği günümüze ulaşabilmiştir. Bugün mevcut makamlardan ise 100-120 kadarının karakteristik olduğu söylenebilir. Türk mûsikisindeki makam fazlalığının sebebi, beşerî duyguların her türlüsünü bütün nüanslarıyla ifade edebilecek makamların mevcudiyetine bağlanabilir. Tarih içerisinde bazı makamlar isim değişikliğine uğradığı gibi günümüzde kullanılan makamların yapılarında da zamanla birtakım değişiklikler meydana gelmiş, özellikle XVIII. yüzyıl ortalarından itibaren bu yapılarda nağme anlayışındaki gelişmelere paralel biçimde zenginlikler oluşmuştur.
Türk mûsikisindeki makamı karşılamak üzere Batı müziğinde kullanılan “ton” (tonalité) ve “mod” (mode) kavramları bazı benzerlikler göstermesine rağmen makamın içerdiği mânayı ifade etmez. Çünkü Yunanca’da “tonos” kökünden gelen, “gerginlik, tel gerginliği” anlamındaki ton kelimesinin mûsiki terminolojisinde görülen çeşitli anlamlarından biri de “türlü tizlik ve pestlik derecelerindeki mûsiki seslerinden biri” olup “müzikal ses” demektir. Burada ton, Türk mûsikisinde perdenin karşılığı olarak iki ses arasındaki uzaklığı yani aralığı belirtir. Meselâ ton tam ikiliyi, “triton” büyük üçlüyü bildirir. Bu kelime ayrıca “do tonu, lâ tonu” veya “do majör tonu, lâ minör tonu” şeklinde “dizi” anlamında da kullanılabilir. Bu durumda bir akor sistemini de ifade etmiş olur. Mod kelimesi “tarz” mânasında olup Batı mûsikisindeki majör ve minör tarzlarını yani dizi şekillerini belirtir. Bu bakımdan makam kavramının ve oluşumunun majörlük ve minörlükle bir ilgisi yoktur.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
M. Suphi Ezgi, Nazarî-Amelî Türk Musikisi , İstanbul 1933, I, 48-49.
Mahmut R. Gazimihal, Musiki Sözlüğü , İstanbul 1961, s. 149-150, 156-157, 250-251.
Özkan, TMNU , s. 77.
Rauf Yektâ, Türk Musikisi , s. 67-68, 82-84.
K. L. Signell, Makam: Modal Practice in Turkish Art Music , New York 1986.
Yalçın Tura, Türk Mûsikîsinin Meseleleri , İstanbul 1988, s. 137-146, 174-181.
Hüseyin Sâdeddin Arel, Türk Mûsıkîsi Nazariyatı Dersleri (haz. Onur Akdoğu), Ankara 1991, s. 28-34.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2003 yılında Ankara’da basılan 27. cildinde, 410-412 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.