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MAKĀME Skip to content Hayalî bir kahramanın başından geçen olayların hayalî bir hikâyeci tarafından dile getirildiği kısa hikâyeler serisinden (makāmât) meydana gelen edebî tür ve bu konuda yazılan eserlerin ortak adı.
Sözlükte “kalkmak, ayakta durmak” mânasındaki kıyâm kökünden türemiş bir isim olan makāme (çoğulu makāmât ), “bir araya gelmiş bir grup insan, bunların bulunduğu veya oturduğu yer” anlamına gelir. Zamanla bu yerlerde söylenen sözlere de makāme denmiştir (Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “ḳvm” md.; Tâcü’l-ʿarûs , “ḳvm” md.). İslâm devletinin güçlenip genişlediği, buna paralel olarak nüfuz, servet ve refahın arttığı, israfın ve adaletsiz uygulamaların başladığı Emevîler döneminde bazı zâhidler üst düzey yöneticileriyle temas etme imkânlarını aramış, çeşitli meclislerde onlara öğüt çerçevesinde hitap etmeye başlamışlardır. Zâhidler bu konuşmaları güzel, sağlam ve etkili bir Arapça ile yapıyor, sözlerini Kur’an’dan, hadisten, Arap şiiri ve darbımesellerinden naklettikleri örneklerle süslüyorlardı. Böylece makāme Emevîler devrinde halifeler, vezirler, valiler gibi üst düzey yöneticilerinin huzurunda yapılan zühd ve takvâ hitabeleri olarak “huzurda duruş; huzur konuşması” anlamını kazanmıştır.
III. (IX.) yüzyıldan itibaren makāmenin vaaz ve hitabe özelliğini kaybetmeye, bunun yerine eğitici, öğretici, etkileyici ve eğlendirici yönü ağır basan “dilenci hitabesi” hüviyetine bürünmeye başladığı görülmektedir. Eskiden olduğu gibi içinde âyet ve hadislerden yapılmış iktibaslar bulunmakla birlikte makāme nasihat içeren konuşmalar niteliğinden çıkarak edebî bir tür haline gelmiştir. Bu türün özelliklerini, bir olay etrafında şekillenme, hayalî bir râvisi, her konudaki bilgisi ve güzel konuşmasıyla insanları kendine hayran bırakan, dilenci hüviyetinde hayalî bir kahramanı bulunma, dilin inceliklerini, özellikle dildeki garip kelimeleri öğretmeyi hedefleme, nahiv bilmecelerinden, edebî inceliklerden ve Arap atasözlerinden örnekler vermek suretiyle okuyucuların hoşça vakit geçirmelerini amaçlama biçiminde özetlemek mümkündür. Bu yeni şekliyle makāme türünün ilk defa Bedîüzzaman el-Hemedânî (ö. 398/1008) tarafından ortaya konduğu görüşü araştırmacıların çoğu tarafından benimsenmektedir. Hemedânî’nin bu başarısında zengin bilgisi, geniş kültürü ve özel yeteneğinin yanı sıra muhteva, biçim, üslûp ve sanat yönünden mevcut edebî mirastan faydalanmış olduğunu da belirtmek gerekir. Bu arada Câhiz’in başta Ḥiyelü’l-mükeddîn ’i olmak üzere el-Buḫalâʾ , Kitâbü’l-Meḥâsin ve’l-ażdâd ve Kitâbü’t-Terbîʿ ve’t-tedvîr gibi eserlerinde dağınık şekilde bulunan cimrilik, dilencilik, gurur ve kibir gibi sosyal sorunları alaycı, iğneleyici, nükteli bir hikâye üslûbu içinde dile getirmesini, öğrencisi İbn Kuteybe’nin ʿUyûnü’l-aḫbâr ’ında, zâhidler tarafından halifelerin huzurunda yapılan vaaz ve nasihatlerinden söz ettiği “Maḳāmâtü’z-zühhâd” bölümünü, özellikle Ebû İshak el-Husrî’nin Zehrü’l-âdâb ’ında (I, 305-306) Hemedânî’nin kendisini taklit ederek 400 makāme yazdığını söylediği İbn Düreyd’in Erbaʿûne ḥadîs̱en adlı eserini, İbnü’d-Dâye’nin yetmiş bir hikâyeyi içeren el-Mükâfeʾe ve ḥüsnü’l-ʿuḳbâ ’sı ile ʿAntere , Sîretü Aḥmed b. Ṭolûn , Hârûn b. Ebü’l-Ceyş , Aḫbâru Ġılmâni Benî Ṭolûn adlı kitaplarını, Ebü’l-Ferec el-İsfahânî’nin eserlerinde yer alan zâhid, âbid, hırsız, dilenci ve edepsizlerle ilgili hikâyeleri, Ebü’l-Mutahhar el-Ezdî’nin dilenci ve asalak konusunu ele aldığı Ḥikâyetü Ebi’l-Ḳāsım el-Baġdâdî ’sini, Ebû Ali et-Tenûhî’nin el-Ferec baʿde’ş-şidde , Nişvârü’l-muḥâḍara , el-Müstecâd min feʿalâti’l-ecvâd adlı eserlerinde ders verici ve eğlendirici nitelikteki yol kesici, hırsız, cömert-cimri hikâyelerini, Hemedânî’nin hocası İbn Fâris’in Fütyâ faḳīhi’l-ʿArab adlı eserini, ayrıca Hemedânî zamanında yaygın olan ve Sâsâniyye adı verilen, çeşitli yollarla ve söz ustalıkları ile insanlardan yardım talep eden (mükeddîn) Ahnef el-Ukberî ve Ebû Dülef el-Yenbuî gibi gezginci dilenci şairler taifesinin şiir ve kasidelerinin tesirlerini hatırlatmak gerekir. Hemedânî’nin ve onun çok başarılı bir takipçisi olan Harîrî’nin makāmelerinde hayalî bir râvi ve hayalî bir kahraman vazgeçilmeyen iki unsurdur. Râvinin görevi makāmenin konusunu teşkil eden olayı anlatmak, kahramanın görevi de olayın baş oyuncusu rolünü oynamaktır. Hemedânî’nin makāmelerinde râvi Îsâ b. Hişâm, olayların kahramanı da Ebü’l-Feth el-İskenderî’dir. Bedîüzzamân el-Hemedânî’den yaklaşık bir asır sonra gelen Harîrî makāmelerinde üslûp, amaç ve kurgu bakımından selefinin yolunu izlemiş, onun açtığı çığırı daha da geliştirmek suretiyle sürdürmüştür. Harîrî’nin makāmelerinde râvi Hâris b. Hemmâm, kahraman da Ebû Zeyd es-Sürûcî’dir.
Hemedânî ile Harîrî’nin makāmeleri yazıldıkları dönemden itibaren büyük rağbet görmüş, çeşitli ülkelerde istinsah edilerek birçok edip tarafından taklit edilmiştir. Özellikle Harîrî’nin makāmeleri Arap belâgatı ve üslûp ustalığının sembolü sayılmış, değerini modern zamanlara kadar korumuştur (Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature , II, 508). Hemedânî’nin Maḳāmât ’ını taklit edenler arasında bir makāmesi zamanımıza ulaşan Abdülazîz İbn Nübâte es-Sa‘dî’yi (Ahlwardt, nr. 8536), makāmât üslûbunda kaleme alınmış ve şiir tenkidini konu edinmiş olan Resâʾilü’l-intiḳād ’ın (nşr. Selâhaddin el-Müneccid, Beyrut 1404/1983) müellifi İbn Şeref el-Kayrevânî ile çoğu dilenci kurnazlıklarına dair Maḳāmâ t’ın (nşr. Hasan Abbas, İskenderiyye 1988) yazarı İbn Nâkıyâ’yı zikretmek mümkündür. Harîrî’nin el-Maḳāmât ’ı ile klasik şeklini alan edebî makāme türü çağımıza kadar birçok yazar tarafından taklit edilip çeşitli alanlara uygulanmıştır.
VI. (XII.) yüzyılda Zemahşerî, Maḳāmât ’ı ile ekleri olan Nevâbiġu’l-kelim ve Aṭvâḳu’ẕ-ẕeheb ’inde geleneği terkederek ahlâk ve mev‘iza konusunda edebî bir zevk vermeyi amaçlamıştır. Eşterkûnî el-Maḳāmâtü’l-lüzûmiyye ’sinde Harîrî’nin sıkı taklitçisi olmuş, Maarrî’den de etkilenerek lüzûm-ı mâ lâ yelzem sanatını icra etmiştir. Şehâbeddin es-Sühreverdî’nin el-Maḳāmâtü’ṣ-ṣûfiyye ’si tasavvuf terimlerine, Ebü’l-Ferec İbnü’l-Cevzî’nin el-Maḳāmetü’l-Cevziyye ’si mev‘izaya, Ahmed b. Ali el-Üsvânî’nin el-Maḳāmâtü’l-ḥâsibiyye ’si toplum eleştirisine, Rükneddin el-Vehrânî’nin el-Maḳāmâtü’l-Vehrâniyye ’si eğitim, övgü ve ahlâka, hıristiyan tabip Yahyâ b. Mârî’nin el-Maḳāmâtü’l-Mesîḥiyye ’si bilim ve sanat konularına dairdir. Gazzâlî ile Sem‘ânî de halife ve valilerin huzurunda zâhid kişilerin yaptığı nasihat konuşmalarına dair makāmât yazmışlardır. VI. (XII.) yüzyılda Endülüs ve Mağribli yazarlar dahil olmak üzere birçok âlim ve edip makāme türünde eserler vermişlerdir (Hasan Abbas, s. 9-146).
VII. (XIII.) yüzyılda şair Tilimsânî Şâbbüzzarîf Maḳāmâtü’l-ʿuşşâḳ , Feṣâḥatü’l-mesbûk fî melâḥati’l-maʿşûḳ , el-Maḳāmetü’l-Hîtiyye ve’ş-Şîrâziyye adlı eserlerinde makāme tarzını gazele uygulamış, İbnü’s-Saykal el-Cezerî 672’de (1273) yazdığı el-Maḳāmâtü’z-Zeyniyye ’sinde Harîrî’nin yakın takipçisi olmuş, Bedreddin İbnü’l-Muazzam on iki makāmesinde Harîrî’yi taklide çalışmış, Zahîrüddin Ali el-Kâzerûnî el-Maḳāmetü’l-Baġdâdiyye ’sinde Bağdat’ı tasvir etmiş, Tâceddin Muhammed es-Sarhadî Maḳāme fi’l-müfâḫare beyne’t-tût ve’l-mişmiş ’inde dut ile kayısı arasındaki üstünlük kavgasını ele almıştır.
VIII. (XIV.) yüzyılda Ahmed er-Râzî el-Maḳāmâtü’l-is̱nâ ʿaşeriyye , İbn Seyyidünnâs el-Maḳāmâtü’l-ʿaliyye , Muhammed b. İbrâhim ed-Dımaşkī el-Maḳāmâtü’l-felsefiyye ve’t-tercemâtü’ṣ-ṣûfiyye , Zeynüddin İbnü’l-Verdî en-Nebeʾ ʿani’l-vebâ (Maḳāme fi’ṭ-ṭâʿûni’l-ʿâm) adlı eserleri kaleme almışlardır. Selâhaddin es-Safedî, ʿİbretü’l-lebîb bi-maṣraʿi’l-keʾîb ’inde (el-Maḳāmetü’l-Aybekiyye ) platonik aşk konusunu ele almış, İbn Habîb el-Halebî el-Maḳāmât ’ında hayvan tasvirlerini konu edinmiştir. Lisânüddin İbnü’l-Hatîb Miʿyârü’l-iḫtibâr fî aḥvâli’l-meʿâhid ve’d-diyâr , Ḫatratü’ṭ-ṭayf fî riḥleti’ş-şitâʾi ve’ṣ-ṣayf ve Maḳāmetü’s-siyâse adını taşıyan, ülke ve beldelerin tasvir ve tanıtımı ile gezi ve siyasete dair eserlerini makāme üslûbunda yazmıştır.
IX. (XV.) yüzyılda Muhammed el-Kavvâs, Riyâżü’l-ezhâr adlı makāmâtını geleneğin aksine düz nesirle ve değişik kahramanlar halinde yazmıştır. Edip ve fakih Ömer ez-Zeccâl el-Maḳāmâtü’s-Sâsâniyye , Tesrîḥu’n-niṣâl ilâ maḳātili’l-fiṣâl ve Maḳāme fî emri’l-vebâ ’yı telif etmiştir. Gırnatalı şair ve edip İbnü’l-Murâbi‘ Maḳāmetü’l-ʿîd ’i kaleme almıştır. X. (XVI.) yüzyılda Süyûtî makāme adını verdiği birçok eserinde ilmî meseleleri, nahiv bilmeceleri (lugaz), toplumsal konuların eleştirisi, tâziye, veba, ahlâk ve cinsel sorunları ele almıştır. İbrâhim İbnü’l-Vezîr el-Maḳāmâtü’n-naẓariyye ’de ve Ahmed b. Muhammed el-Kastallânî Maḳāmâtü’l-ʿârifîn ’de kelâm konularını işlemiş, Ali b. Nâsır el-Hicâzî el-Maḳāmetü’l-Ġavriyye ’sinde Kansu Gavri’yi övmüştür.
Edebî eserlerin kalitelerinin düştüğü XVIII-XIX. yüzyıllarda makāme tarzı yine çeşitli konulara uygulanmıştır. Abdullah b. Hüseyin es-Süveydî, Maḳāmâtü’l-ems̱âli’s-sâʾire ’de, oğlu Ebü’l-Hayr Abdurrahman Câmiʿatü’l-ems̱âl ’inde makāme tarzını kullanarak atasözlerini hoş ve eğlenceli bir çerçevede irtibatlandırmışlardır. Ebû Bekir b. Muhsin el-Alevî, el-Maḳāmâtü’l-Hindiyye ’sinde kahramanı olan Seyyah Ebü’z-Zafer el-Hindî’nin elli Hindistan macerasını râvisi Nâsır b. Fettâh’ın dilinden anlatmaktadır. Cemâleddin Ebü’l-Feth b. Alevân el-Kabbânî, makāmesinde Basra hâkimleri Hüseyin Paşa ile Ali Paşa Efrâsiyâb’ın İbrâhim Paşa kumandasındaki Türk ordusuna karşı verdikleri savaşı tasvir etmiştir. Osman b. Ali el-Ömerî, el-Maḳāmâtü’d-düceyliyye ve’l-maḳāmâtü’l-ʿÖmeriyye ’sinde İslâm mezhep ve fırkalarını konu edinmiş, Yûsuf el-Hifnî, Maḳāmetü’l-muḥâkeme beyne’l-müdâm ve’z-zühûr ’unda yağmurla çiçekler arasında, Ahmed Berbîr el-Beyrûtî, Maḳāme fi’l-mufâḫare beyne’l-mâʾi ve’l-hevâʾ adlı eserinde su ile hava arasındaki üstünlük yarışını ele almıştır.
Arap edebiyatındaki makāme türü diğer edebiyatlara da tesir etmiş, İranlı Kadı Ebû Bekir Hamîdüddin Ömer b. Mahmûd el-Belhî (ö. 559/1164) Harîrî’yi taklit ettiği makāmelerinde (Maḳāmât-ı Ḥamîdî ) çeşitli hizip ve gruplar arasındaki üstünlük mücadelesini ele almış, Edîbü’l-Memâlik Ferâhânî (ö. 1917) Mecmûʿatü’l-Maḳāmât adıyla bir eser yazmıştır. İspanya yahudilerinden Jehuda (Yehuda) el-Harîzî (ö. 627/1230), Harîrî’nin eserini İbrânîce’ye tercüme ettiği gibi Sefer ha-Hokhmoth ’ininde (Kitâbü’l-Ḥikme ) elli makāme ile onu taklit etmeye çalışmıştır. Yine İspanya yahudilerinden Salamon ben Sakbîl’in (V./XI. yüzyıl) Aşer ben Yehuda ’sı makāme tarzında olup insanları dine sarılmaya davet etmektedir. İspanyol yahudisi Yûsuf b. Mâir b. Sâbirâ (ö. 591/1195) Sefer Ha-Aşerom (Kitâbü’t-Taʿâlîmi’l-müferriḥa ) adlı eserini makāme tarzında yazmıştır. Nusaybin metropoliti Abdişo (Ebedyeşû, ö. 610/1213), Harîrî’yi taklit ederek Süryânîce dinî-ahlâkî elli manzum makāme yazıp şerhetmiştir (Beyrut 1889). İspanyalı Juan Ruis (VIII./XIV. yüzyıl) el-Ḥubbü’l-maḥmûd ’unda bir kahramanın ibret alınacak maceralarını manzum makāme tarzında kaleme almış ve sosyal gerçekleri realist bir yaklaşımla anlatmıştır. İspanya’nın meşhur Picaresca ve Lazarillo hikâyelerinde de makāmelerde olduğu gibi dilencilik, dilenme kurnazlıkları, cimrilik gibi konular gerçekçi bir yaklaşım ve alaycı-nükteli bir üslûpla anlatılmıştır. İtalyan yazarı Dante Cehennem adlı eserinde, Hemedânî’nin el-Maḳāmetü’l-İblîsiyye ’sinden ya doğrudan doğruya ya da Endülüslü İbn Şüheyd’in cinler âlemine seyahati ele aldığı et-Tevâbiʿ ve’z-zevâbiʿ i yoluyla etkilenmiştir.
Makāme türü eserlerin telifi XIX ve XX. yüzyıllarda da yoğun biçimde devam etmiştir. Lübnanlı Nâsîf el-Yâzicî 1856 yılında neşrettiği Mecmaʿu’l-baḥreyn adlı eserinde Harîrî modelini taklit ederek makāme denemeleri yapmıştır. Yaşadığı çağın gereği olarak konuları değişmekle birlikte makāmelerin kurgu tekniği Harîrî’ninkilerle aynıdır. Olayları anlatan râvi Süheyl b. Abbâd, kahraman ise Meymûn b. Hazzân’dır. Fâris eş-Şidyâk da 1855’te es-Sâḳ ʿale’s-sâḳ fîmâ hüve’l-faryâḳ adıyla yayımladığı eseriyle makāmenin modern takipçilerinden olmuştur. Şidyâk bu kitabındaki makāmelerine tasvir, diyalog vb. yeni ifade tekniklerini ilâve etmeye çalışmışsa da makāmenin karakteristiğini oluşturan secili nesir ve garip kelimelere yer verme kurallarını terketmemiştir.
Mısır’da da makāme sanatını taklit eden birçok edip yetişmiştir. Bazı araştırmacılar Ahmed Şevkī’nin hürriyet, vatan, Süveyş Kanalı, piramitler, ölüm, meçhul asker gibi konuları ele aldığı Esvâḳu’ẕ-ẕeheb adlı eserini Harîrî’nin el-Maḳāmat ’ından etkilenerek yazdığı görüşündedir. Yine Ali Mübârek’in ʿAlemü’d-dîn , İbrâhim el-Müveylihî’nin Ḥadîs̱ü Mûsâ b. ʿİsâm , oğlu Muhammed el-Müveylihî’nin Ḥadîs̱ü ʿÎsâ b. Hişâm ve Hâfız İbrâhim’in 1906 yılında yayımladığı Leyâlî Satîh ’in eski makāme türünün modern uygulamaları olduğu ileri sürülmektedir (Seyyid Hamîd en-Nessâc, LXIV [1982], s. 55-60). Hasan el-Attâr, İbrâhim el-Müveylihî, Muhammed Efendi eş-Şerîf ve Ali Pâşâ Mübârek’in makāmeleri makalemsi bir eğilimi temsil eder.
Makāme türünün Batı edebiyatından Arapça’ya girmiş olan kısa hikâye niteliği taşıdığı yolunda bir kanaat ileri sürülmektedir. Hatta makāmeyi hikâyeden çok tiyatro eserine yakın görenler de vardır. Ancak sağlam temellere dayanmayan bu iddialar alanın uzmanlarınca kabul edilmemekte ve makāmenin özgün bir edebî tür olduğu görüşü benimsenmektedir.
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Tâcü’l-ʿarûs , “ḳvm” md.
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J. N. Mattock, “The Early History of the Maqāma”, JAL , XV (1984), s. 1-18.
F. Malti-Douglas, “Maqāmat and Adab”, JAOS , CV/2 (1985), s. 247-258.
Nevzat Âşık, “Hicrî IV. Asırdan Sonra Makāmât Yazanlar”, DÜİFD , sy. 2 (1985), s. 55-74.
Mahmûd Tursûne, “Fennü’l-maḳāme fi’l-Endelüs”, Ḥavliyyâtü’l-Câmiʿati’t-Tûnisiyye , sy. 28, Tunus 1988, s. 145-166.
Hasan el-Verâglî, “el-Maḳāmetü’l-Meşriḳıyye fi’l-Endelüs”, el-Menâhil , sy. 37, Rabat 1989, s. 150-166.
Câbir Kumeyha, “Riyâdetü’l-maḳāmât beyne İbn Düreyd ve Bedîʿüzzamân el-Hemeẕânî”, el-Menhel , LV/503, Cidde 1413/1993, s. 52, 55.
K. Zakharia, “Norme et fiction dans la zenèse des Maqāmāt d’al-Harīrī”, BEO , XLVI (1994), s. 217-231.
D. Beaumont, “The Trickster and Rhetoric in the Maqāmāt”, Edebiyāt: The Journal of Middle Eastern Literatures , V, Amsterdam 1994, s. 1-14.
C. Brockelmann, “Maḳāme”, İA , VII, 197-201.
R. Drory, “Maqāma”, Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature (ed. J. S. Meisami – P. Starkey), London 1998, II, 507-508.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2003 yılında Ankara’da basılan 27. cildinde, 417-419 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.