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MEFHUM Skip to content Lafzın sözde zikri geçmeyen mânaya delâlet etmesini ifade eden usûl-i fıkıh terimi.
Fıkhî hükümlerin ana kaynaklarını teşkil eden Kur’an ve Sünnet’teki ifadelerin yanı sıra fıkhî sonuçların belirlenmesinde etkili olan irade beyanlarının yorumunda lafız unsurunun önemli bir yeri bulunduğundan fıkıh usulünde lafız değişik açılardan ayırıma tâbi tutularak zengin bir terminoloji geliştirilmiştir. Bu ayırımlardan biri lafzın mânaya delâlet tarzı ve keyfiyetiyle ilgili olup bunlara “delâlet yolları” da denir. Hanefî usul âlimleri lafzın kullanıldığı mânaya nasıl delâlet ettiğini, yani mânanın doğrudan mı yoksa dolaylı mı ifade edildiğini belirlemek üzere delâlet yollarını ibarenin, işaretin, nassın ve iktizânın delâleti şeklinde dört kısma ayırırken Şâfiîler’in önderliğini yaptığı mütekellimîn metodunu benimseyen usulcüler bu konuyu genellikle “mantûk” ve “mefhum” ana başlıkları altında incelemişlerdir. Usulcülerin çoğunluğunca benimsenen sonuncu yaklaşıma göre lafzın sözde zikri geçenin (mantûk bih) hükmünü göstermesine “delâletü’l-mantûk” veya kısaca mantûk, sözde zikri geçmeyenin (meskût anh) hükmünü göstermesine de “delâletü’l-mefhûm” veya kısaca mefhum adı verilir. Cumhurun genel bir isimlendirmeyle mantûk adını verdiği durumlar Hanefîler’in ibare, işaret ve iktizâ dedikleri delâlet şekillerini kapsamaktadır. Mefhum da cumhura ait usul terminolojisinin bir parçası olup bazı çeşitleri Hanefîler’ce başka bir isimle karşılanmakta, bazı çeşitleri hakkında ise esasa ilişkin görüş ayrılıkları bulunmaktadır (ayrıca bk. DELÂLET ; MANTÛK ).
Mefhum terimi için usulcüler “söylenenin (mantûk bih) düşündürdüğü anlam”, “lafızdan sözün konusu (mahallü’n-nutk) dışında anlaşılan mâna”, “lafzın sözün konusu dışındakini göstermesi” gibi tanımlar verirler (İmâmü’l-Haremeyn el-Cüveynî, I, 448; Seyfeddin el-Âmidî, III, 63; İbnü’l-Hâcib, II, 171). Buna göre mefhumun, doğrudan lafzın kapsamında olmayıp onun işaret ettiği veya ona dayanılarak elde edilen mânaları belirten bir terim olduğu ve bu anlamlara sırf dil unsuruna dayalı bir zihinsel işlemle, yani zihnin bir mânadan diğer bir mânaya geçmesiyle ulaşıldığı söylenebilir. Ancak bu tanımların bazısında mefhum teriminin lafzın hem sözün konusu dışında kalan bir hükmü hem de bu hükme konu olan fiili, bazısında ise sadece böyle bir hükmü göstermesi söz konusudur (Halîfe Bâbekr el-Hasan, Menâhicü’l-uṣûliyyîn , s. 123-125).
Mefhum, muvafakat ve muhalefet mefhumları olmak üzere iki kısımda incelenir. Mefhûm-i muvâfakat, “lafzın sükût ettiği konudaki mânasının sözün konusu olan anlamına uygun düşmesi” demektir. Bazan sözden çıkan hükmün zikredilmeyen olay hakkında tıpkı zikredilendeki gibi geçerli olduğu anlaşılırken bazan da zikredilmeyen olay hakkında öncelikle geçerli olduğu sonucuna ulaşılır. Mefhûm-i muvâfakatin bunlardan sadece ikinci durumu ifade ettiğini savunanlara karşılık usulcülerin çoğu her iki durumun bu kapsamda bulunduğu kanaatindedir. Usul eserlerinde bu delâlet türünün diğer adları olan “fahve’l-hitâb, lahnü’l-hitâb, tenbîhü’l-hitâb, mefhûmü’l-hitâb” gibi tabirlerin de anılan iki durumdan birini veya her ikisini kapsayacak şekilde kullanıldığı görülür (a.g.e. , s. 138-139).
Mefhûm-i muvâfakat, Hanefîler’in terminolojisinde “nassın delâleti” adı verilen ve sözün, inceleme ve ictihada ihtiyaç duyulmaksızın ve sırf dil unsuruna dayanarak anlaşılabilen illetteki müştereklik sebebiyle nasta belirtilen duruma ait hükmün nasta belirtilmeyen durum hakkında da sabit olduğunu göstermesi” diye tanımlanan (Şemsüleimme es-Serahsî, I, 241; Zekiyyüddin Şa‘bân, s. 399) delâlet şekline karşılık gelir. İmam Şâfiî’nin kıyas kapsamında mütalaa ettiği bu delâlet türü için (er-Risâle , s. 512-516) sonraki birçok usulcünün “celî kıyas” tabirini kullanması Mu‘tezile ve Eş‘arî kelâmcıları ile fakihlerin çoğunluğu tarafından eleştirilmiştir. Zira onlara göre nassın delâletindeki illet lisanı bilen herkes tarafından kavranabilirken kıyastaki illet ancak müctehid tarafından ve illeti tesbit yollarından biriyle bilinebilir (Pezdevî, II, 221; Alâeddin es-Semerkandî, s. 398-401; Şevkânî, s. 303). Nitekim, “Onlardan (ana babadan) biri veya her ikisi senin yanında yaşlanırsa kendilerine ‘öf’ bile deme; onları azarlama; ikisine de güzel söz söyle” meâlindeki âyetin (el-İsrâ 17/23) ibaresinden evlâdın ana babasına “öf” demesinin haram kılınmasının illetinin bu sözün ana babayı üzmesi ve onlara eziyet vermesi olduğunu herkes anlayabilir. Bu illet dövme, hakaret içeren sözler söyleme vb. davranışlarda fazlasıyla bulunduğu için haramlık hükmü nassın delâleti yoluyla söz konusu durumlar hakkında da sabit olur. İsimlendirme ihtilâfı bir yana, muvafakat mefhumu Dâvûd b. Ali ez-Zâhirî dışındaki İslâm âlimlerinin büyük çoğunluğu tarafından sahih bir delâlet şekli ve geçerli bir hüccet olarak kabul edilmiştir (Seyfeddin el-Âmidî, III, 63-68).
Usul eserlerinde nassın delâleti veya mefhûm-i muvâfakat etrafında yapılan metodolojik tartışmaların daha çok bu tür delâletin bir yandan umum (şümul) niteliğine sahip olup olmadığı, dolayısıyla tahsis edilip edilemeyeceği, diğer yandan umumi bir nassı tahsis edip edemeyeceği konularında yoğunlaştığı görülmektedir. İbnü’l-Hümâm gibi bazı Hanefîler aksi görüşü savunmakla birlikte genellikle Hanefî usulcüleri, nassın delâletiyle sabit hükmün nassın sözlük (hakiki) mânasıyla sabit gibi olduğunu düşündükleri için bu tür delâletin umumunun bulunmadığı kanaatindedir. Serahsî bu yaklaşımı savunurken tahsisin “kelâmın aslının tahsisle dışarıda bırakılan kısmı kapsamadığını açıklamak” anlamına geldiğini, nassın delâletiyle sübût bulan mânanın da sözlükte sabit olan anlam gibi olduğunu belirtir ve nassın anlamı sözlük bakımından delâlet ettiği mânayı kapsadığına göre tahsisin gerektirdiği “bir kısmı içine almama” ihtimalinin de ortadan kalkmış olduğuna dikkat çeker. Öte yandan nassın delâletiyle sabit olan hükmü ancak muârız bir delilin geçersiz kılabileceğini, bunun ise tahsis değil nesih olduğunu ifade eder. Bâkıllânî, Şîrâzî ve Gazzâlî gibi kelâmcı metodunu benimseyen bazı Şâfiî usulcülerine göre de mefhûm-i muvâfakat umum niteliğine sahip değildir, dolayısıyla tahsise konu olmaz; zira bu usulcüler, mefhum ve fahve’l-kelâmla amel etmeyi lafızla değil sükûtla amel etmek şeklinde değerlendirirler. Mütekellimîn metoduna bağlı usulcülerin çoğunluğu ise mefhûm-i muvâfakatin umum niteliği taşıdığını savunmuştur (Ebû İshak eş-Şîrâzî, I, 346; Pezdevî, I, 73; II, 219-220; Şemsüleimme es-Serahsî, I, 241, 254; Gazzâlî, el-Müstaṣfâ , II, 70; Alâeddin es-Semerkandî, s. 304-306; Fahreddin er-Râzî, I/3, s. 12-13; İbn Emîru Hâc, I, 232; Halîfe Bâbekr el-Hasan, Menâhicü’l-uṣûliyyîn , s. 163-189). Esasen bu tartışmalar, mutlak olarak mefhumların umum niteliğine sahip olup olmadığına dair ihtilâfın uzantısı olup usulcülerin çoğunluğu mefhumların umum niteliği bulunduğu görüşünü tercih etmiştir (Koca, s. 61-64). Mefhumların umum niteliğine sahip olması ise onların tahsis edilebileceği anlamına da gelir. Çünkü müteaddit fertler için sabit olan bir hükmün tahsise konu olacağı açıktır ve bu sübûtun lafzen veya mânen olması arasında fark yoktur (Beyzâvî, II, 77).
Öte yandan usulcülerin çoğunluğu, mefhûm-i muvâfakatin herhangi bir umumun kapsamını daraltabilecek güçte olduğu kanaatindedir; zira onlara göre bu tür delâlet nas gibi katidir ve âm bir lafızla karşılaşması halinde ona takdim edilmesi gerekir (Ebû İshak eş-Şîrâzî, I, 356; Gazzâlî, II, 105). Buna karşılık bazı usulcüler, âmmın bizzat nasta söylenmiş olması sebebiyle delâlet açısından mefhumdan daha kuvvetli olduğunu, mefhumun nasta kullanılan lafza ihtiyacı bulunduğu halde mantûkun böyle bir mefhuma ihtiyacı olmadığını ileri sürmüşlerdir (Adudüddin el-Îcî, II, 150). Fahreddin er-Râzî de mefhumu hüccet saymanın mantûku tahsis edebileceği anlamına gelmediğini, mantûkun delâletinden daha zayıf olduğunda şüphe bulunmayan mefhumla tahsis yapmanın zayıfın kuvvetliye tercih edilmesi anlamına geleceğini belirtmiştir (el-Maḥṣûl , I/3, s. 159-160). Bu tartışmaların diğer ayrıntıları bir yana, kıyası tahsis delili olarak kabul etmenin tutarlılık açısından mefhûm-i muvâfakati de tahsis delili saymayı gerektirdiği söylenebilir.
Mefhumun diğer nevi olan ve bazı usulcüler tarafından “delîlü’l-hitâb” ve “el-mahsûs bi’z-zikr” diye de anılan mefhûmü’l-muhâlefe, “meskût anhin hükümde mantûk bihe muhalif bulunması” ya da “lafzın sükût ettiği konudaki mânasının sözün konusu olan anlamına aykırı olması” biçiminde tarif edilir (İmâmü’l-Haremeyn el-Cüveynî, I, 449; Seyfeddin el-Âmidî, III, 66; Şevkânî, s. 303). Türkçe’de de “mefhûm-i muhâlif” (karşıt kavram kanıtı) şeklinde ifade edilen bu delâlet türü, bütün usulcülere göre insanların irade beyanlarını yorumlama esnasında hukukî bir delil niteliği taşır. Çünkü kişi sözünü bir vasıf, şart veya diğer bir kayıtla sınırlandırdığı zaman -başka maksadının bulunduğu tesbit edilemiyorsa- kaydın gerçekleşmesi halinde hükmün sabit olacağını, gerçekleşmemesi durumunda ise hükmün sabit olmayacağını belirtmiş olur. Buna karşılık kelâmcı metodunu benimseyen usulcüler (cumhur), mefhûm-i muhâlefetin Kur’an ve Sünnet naslarını yorumlama konusunda da geçerli bir delâlet nevi olduğunu savunurken Hanefîler söz konusu delâletin naslar hakkında bir hüküm ifade edemeyeceğini ve bu konuda mefhûm-i muhâlefetin fâsid istidlâl niteliği taşıdığını ileri sürmüşlerdir (Cessâs, I, 289-323; Debûsî, vr. 70b ; İmâmü’l-Haremeyn el-Cüveynî, I, 449-480; Abdülazîz el-Buhârî, II, 253; M. Edîb Sâlih, I, 665-756). Mefhûm-i muhâlefet taraftarları, naslarda yer alan her kaydın mutlaka bir maksada binaen konmuş olduğunu, aksini düşünmenin bu kayıtların anlamsızlığını ve boş yere zikredildiğini kabul etmek mânasına geleceğini, halbuki abesle iştigal demek olan böyle bir duruma değil Allah ve resulünün sözlerinde, aklı başında ve düzgün konuşan herhangi bir insanın ifadelerinde bile rastlanamayacağını belirtmişlerdir. Hanefî usulcüleri ise beşer sözlerinden farklı olarak şâriin sözlerindeki bütün maksatları kuşatma imkânına sahip olmadığımızı, dolayısıyla bir nasta yer alan herhangi bir kaydın konulmasının sebep ve amacını ortaya çıkaramadığımız zaman, “Bu kayıttan maksat hükmün onun bulunduğu durumlara tahsis edilmesi ve bulunmadığı durumlarda da hükmün yok sayılması gereğidir” denilemeyeceğini söylemişlerdir. Mefhûm-i muhâlefetin hukukî değeriyle ilgili bu farklı eğilimleri şu noktada birleştirmek mümkündür: Mefhûm-i muhâlefetin delâletinin her iki grup usulcüye göre zannî olduğu dikkate alındığında şâriin maksatlarını kuşatmanın imkânsızlığı düşüncesi bu tür delâleti kabul etmemek için güçlü bir gerekçe olamaz; zira çıkarılan anlam için kesinlik iddiası söz konusu değildir. Ayrıca mefhûm-i muhâlefeti hukukî bir delil olarak kabul edenler de adı geçen delâletle amel edilebilmesi için birtakım ilâve şartlar ileri sürmüşlerdir. Bu şartlara göre, mantûkun hükmüne konan kaydın kayıt kalktığı zaman hükmün de sona ereceğini göstermesi dışında herhangi bir fayda veya maksadının bulunmaması gerekir. Böyle bir yarar veya amacının bulunması halinde ise mefhûm-i muhâlefet dikkate alınmaz ve ona göre hüküm verilmez.
Sözün taşıdığı kayda göre değişik isimlerle anılan mefhûm-i muhâlifin başlıca çeşitleri şunlardır: a) Mefhûm-i sıfât. Hükmü bir vasıfla kayıtlanmış olan nassın bu vasfı taşımayan durumlar hakkında o hükmün geçerli olmadığına delâlet etmesidir. Meselâ Hz. Peygamber’in, “Zenginin alacaklısını oyalaması zulümdür. Onun dava edilmesi ve cezalandırılması helâldir” hadisi (farklı lafızlarla bk. Buhârî, “İstiḳrâż ve âdâbü’d-düyûn”, 12; Ebû Dâvûd, “Büyûʿ”, 10; Nesâî, “Büyûʿ”, 100) mantûkuyla, borcunu ödeme gücüne sahip kişinin borcunu ödemekten kaçınmasının zulüm sayıldığını, bu takdirde alacaklının dava açarak onu teşhir etmesi ve hâkimin onu cezalandırmasının câiz olduğunu, mefhûm-i muhâlifiyle ise fakir bir kimsenin borcunu ödememesinin zulüm olmadığını ifade etmektedir. Zira mantûkun hükmü “zengin olma” vasfı ile kayıtlanmıştır. Bu nitelik bulunmayınca hüküm de bulunmaz. b) Mefhûm-i şart. Hükmü şart edatlarından biriyle belirli bir şarta bağlanmış olan nassın o şartın yokluğu durumunda söz konusu hükmün geçerli olmadığına delâlet etmesidir. Meselâ Resûl-i Ekrem’in, “Bağış yapan kişi karşılık almamışsa bağışladığı şey üzerinde daha fazla hak sahibidir” hadisi (farklı rivayetler için bk. Abdullah b. Yûsuf ez-Zeylaî, IV, 125-126) mantûkuyla, bağışta bulunan kimsenin hibeden dönme hakkının bulunduğunu, ancak bu hakkın hibe edilen şey için bir karşılık almamış olması şartına bağlı olduğunu, mefhûm-i muhâlifiyle ise karşılık almış olması halinde hibede bulunanın bundan rücû edemeyeceğini belirtmektedir. Çünkü mantûkun hükmü “karşılık almama” şartına bağlanmıştır. Bu şart kalkınca hüküm de kalkar (hibenin ivazlı olup olamayacağı ve hibeden rücû konusundaki görüş ayrılıkları hakkında bk. HİBE ). c) Mefhûm-i gāye. Hükmü belirli bir sınırla kayıtlanmış olan nassın bu sınırdan sonra o hükmün geçerli olmadığına delâlet etmesidir. Meselâ, “Sabahın beyaz ipliği (aydınlığı) siyah ipliğinden (karanlığından) ayırt edilinceye kadar yiyin, için. Sonra gece oluncaya kadar orucu tamamlayın” meâlindeki âyette geçen (el-Bakara 2/187) ve “…inceye kadar” anlamını taşıyan “hattâ” kelimesi kendinden önceki mânanın sınırını ve son bulduğunu göstermektedir. Bu durumda söz konusu nas mantûkuyla, ramazan gecelerinde fecre kadar yiyip içmenin mubahlığına, mefhûm-i muhâlefetiyle ise bu sınırdan yani fecirden sonra yiyip içmenin haramlığına delâlet etmektedir. d) Mefhûm-i aded. Hükmü belirli bir sayı ile kayıtlanmış olan nassın bu sayının dışında o hükmün yerine gelmeyeceğine delâlet etmesidir. Meselâ Hz. Peygamber’in, “Her beş deveden bir koyun -zekât verilmesi- gerekir” hadisi (Müsned , II, 14-15; İbn Mâce, “Zekât”, 9) mantûkuyla, -develerin zekâtı bağlamında- bir koyunun verilmesinin vâcip olması için beş deveye sahip olunmasını şart koşmuştur. Mefhûm-i muhâlifiyle ise beş deveden daha az sayıda deveye mâlik olunması halinde bunlardan zekât verilmesinin vâcip olmadığı anlamına gelmektedir (Zekiyyüddin Şa‘bân, s. 407-409). “Özel isme, cins, nevi, topluluk belirten isme bağlanan hükmün onun dışındakiler açısından nefyedilmesi” anlamına gelen mefhûm-i lakab ise usulcülerin hemen hemen tamamına göre geçerli bir delil değildir. Meselâ, “Muhammed Allah’ın resulüdür” ifadesinden (el-Feth 48/29) “Allah’ın Muhammed’den başka peygamberi yoktur” anlamı çıkarılamaz (mefhûm-i muhâlif ve çeşitleri hakkında bilgi için bk. Gazzâlî, el-Müstaṣfâ , II, 191-212; Seyfeddin el-Âmidî, II, 66-94; Zerkeşî, IV, 24-55; Şevkânî, s. 303-310).
Usulcüler, mefhûm-i muvâfakattaki gibi mefhûm-i muhâlefetin de umum niteliğine sahip olup olmadığı ve umumi bir nassı/lafzı tahsis etme gücünün bulunup bulunmadığı konularında geniş metodolojik tartışmalar yapmışlardır. Kelâmcı metodunu benimseyen usulcülerin çoğunluğu, lafzın meskût anhte -ister muvafakat ister muhalefet olsun- umum niteliği taşıdığını ileri sürerken fukaha metodunu benimseyen usulcülerin çoğunluğu ise mefhumların delâletinin lafzî olmadığını, bu sebeple mefhumla amelin lafızla değil sükûtla amel etmek anlamına geleceğini savunmuştur. Fahreddin er-Râzî, Gazzâlî’nin mefhumun umumu olmadığına dair ifadesini (el-Müstaṣfâ , II, 70) değerlendirirken eğer bununla “âm” teriminin sadece lafızları kapsadığı belirtilmek isteniyorsa görüş ayrılığının terim ihtilâfından ibaret kaldığını, fakat “Ondan (mefhum) kendisi dışındaki şeylerde hükmün nefyedildiği anlamı çıkarılamaz” denmek isteniyorsa bunun yanlış olacağını söylemiştir. Zira ona göre mefhumun umum niteliği taşıması meselesi mefhumun geçerli bir hüccet olması konusunun bir parçasıdır ve mefhumun geçerli bir delil olduğu sübût bulunca onun kapsamı dışında kalanlar hakkında hükmün yokluğunu kabul etmek gerekir; çünkü zikredilmeyen hakkında da hüküm sabit olacaksa onu özellikle zikretmenin anlamı kalmaz (el-Maḥṣûl , I/2, s. 654-655). Mefhûm-i muhâlifin umum niteliğine sahip olduğunu kabul etmek bunun tahsise konu olacağını da kabul anlamına gelir. Başta Şâfiîler olak üzere usulcülerin çoğunluğu, bu meseledeki temel tercihleri gereğince mefhûm-i muhâlefetin tahsise konu olacağını, Hanefîler ise aksini savunmuştur (Alâeddin es-Semerkandî, s. 306; Fahreddin er-Râzî, I/3, s. 12-13). Öte yandan kelâmcı metoduna mensup usulcüler mefhûm-i muhâlefetin tahsis delili de olabileceği kanaatindedirler (Ebû İshak eş-Şîrâzî, I, 356-357; Kelvezânî, II, 118, 189-228; Seyfeddin el-Âmidî, II, 529); özellikle âm lafızların delâletinin kati olduğunu savunan Hanefîler’in ise (Koca, s. 91-93) nastan birtakım çıkarımlarla elde edilen zannî bir anlamla (mefhum), hele uzun araştırmalar neticesinde ulaşılabilecek zıt bir mâna ile bu katiliğin daraltılmasına olumlu bakmaları beklenemez (mefhum teriminin mantıktaki anlamı için bk. TASAVVUR ).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Müsned , II, 14-15.
Buhârî, “İstiḳrâż ve âdâbü’d-düyûn”, 12.
İbn Mâce, “Zekât”, 9.
Ebû Dâvûd, “Büyûʿ”, 10.
Nesâî, “Büyûʿ”, 100.
Şâfiî, er-Risâle , s. 512-516.
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Zekiyyüddin Şa‘bân, İslâm Hukuk İlminin Esasları (trc. İbrahim Kâfi Dönmez), Ankara 2000, s. 399, 406-412.
Ali Bardakoğlu, “Delâlet”, DİA , IX, 119-122.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2003 yılında Ankara’da basılan 28. cildinde, 350-353 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.