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MEŞAKKAT Skip to content Genelde dinî ve hukukî hükümlerin tabii uzantısı olan zorlukları, özelde yükümlülüğün kaldırılmasına veya hafifletilmesine sebep olan sıkıntıyı ifade eden bir fıkıh terimi.
Sözlükte “yarmak, iki parçaya ayırmak” anlamındaki şakk masdarından türeyen meşakkat “zorluk, güçlük, darlık ve sıkıntı” demektir. Meşakkat yerine Arapça’da ayrıca harec, külfet, kürh, suûbet, usr ve cehd gibi yakın anlamlı kelimeler de kullanılmaktadır. Meşakkat, bir şey insana zorla yaptırılmak suretiyle hariçten gelirse kerh, insanın hoşlanmadığı halde bir şey yapmış olması sebebiyle kendi nefsinden gelirse kürh adını alır (Râgıb el-İsfahânî, el-Müfredât, “krh” md.). Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de sadece bir yerde meşakkatle aynı anlamda ve aynı kökten gelen şıkk (kendini paralamak) kelimesi geçmektedir (en-Nahl 16/7). Hadislerde ise çeşitli isim ve fiil kalıplarında ve sözlük mânalarında kullanılmıştır (Wensinck, el-Muʿcem, “şḳḳ” md.). Terim olarak meşakkat dinî ve hukukî hükümlerin içerdiği, bunların tabii uzantısı olan zorlukları da kapsamakla birlikte özelde yükümlülüklerin kaldırılmasına veya hafifletilmesine sebep olan ve normal şartlarda tahammül sınırını aşan sıkıntıyı ifade eder. Fıkıh literatüründe genellikle harec ve zaruret kelimelerinin meşakkat içeren durumları belirtmek üzere kullanıldığı, dolayısıyla meşakkatin bu terimlere göre daha kapsamlı olduğu görülür. Meşakkatle ruhsat arasında bir sebebiyet ilişkisi vardır, yani meşakkat bazı hallerde bir ruhsat sebebi oluşturur (bk. RUHSAT).
Dinin koyduğu hükümlerin insanlara meşakkat vermeyi hedeflemediğini belirten birçok âyet ve hadis bulunmaktadır. “Allah size kolaylık diler, zorluk dilemez” (el-Bakara 2/185); “O, dinde size zorluk verecek bir hüküm koymamıştır” (el-Hac 22/78; ayrıca bk. el-Mâide 5/6) meâlindeki âyetlerden ve Hz. Peygamber’in, “Din kolaylıktır” (Buhârî, “Îmân”, 29); “Ben kolaylaştırılmış Hanîflik’le gönderildim” (Müsned, V, 266; VI, 116, 233) meâlindeki hadislerinden, yine onun iki şey arasında muhayyer bırakıldığında günah olmadıkça kolay olanı tercih ettiği şeklindeki rivayetlerden (Buhârî, “Menâḳıb”, 23; Müslim, “Feżâʾil”, 77), bunların yanı sıra Kur’an’da ve Sünnet’te yer alan pek çok ruhsat hükmünden, özellikle geçmiş ümmetler için geçerli olan bazı zor hükümlerin bu ümmetten kaldırıldığını bildiren âyetlerden (el-Bakara 2/286; el-A‘râf 7/157) bu husus açıkça anlaşılmaktadır. Öte yandan dinen tavsiye edilmekle beraber kesin bir şekilde yapılması istenmeyen fiiller hakkında Hz. Peygamber’in yaptığı bazı açıklamalarda bunların kesin birer vecîbe kılınmamasının insanlara meşakkat vereceği gerekçesine dayandığı belirtilmiştir (örnekler için bk. Buhârî, “Temennî”, 9; Müslim, “Ṭahâret”, 42, “Mesâcid”, 219, 225). Yine Resûl-i Ekrem’in namaz kıldırma ve vaaz verme sürelerini ayarlarken cemaatin, askerî harekâta dair görevlendirme yaparken askerin durumunu dikkate aldığına dair rivayetlerdeki ifadeler (Buhârî, “Îmân”, 26, “ʿİlim”, 12, “Eẕân”, 65, 163; Müslim, “Münâfiḳīn”, 82-83), onun başkalarını ilgilendiren olaylarda takdir yetkisini kullanırken meşakkat kriterine önem verdiğini göstermektedir. Hz. Peygamber’i örnek alan sahâbîler de onun kolaylaştırıp güçlük çıkarmama tavrını sürdürmüşlerdir (Buhârî, “ʿAmel fi’ṣ-ṣalât”, 11). Âlimler arasında İslâm dininde insanları sıkıntıya sokma hedefi taşıyan hükümlerin mevcut olmadığı yönünde icmâ oluşmuştur. Fakat meşakkatin kaldırılması (ref‘u’l-harec) ilkesi şer‘î hükümlerin bazı sıkıntılar içermediği anlamına gelmemektedir. Aksine bütün dinî-hukukî yükümlülüklerin bir tür meşakkat ihtiva etmesi kaçınılmazdır. Nitekim “yükümlü kılma” mânasındaki “teklif” kelimesi de “meşakkat” demek olan “külfet” kökünden türetilmiştir. Ancak şer‘î hükümlerin içerdiği meşakkat doğrudan hedef olmayıp hükmün konuş amacına hizmet eden vasıta konumundadır. İslâm âlimlerinin tesbitine göre dindeki bütün hükümlerin nihaî amacı kulların yararını, yani dünya ve âhiret saadetini temin etmektir (bk. MASLAHAT).
İslâm âlimleri, sorumluluk için kudretin şart olduğunu kabul etmekle birlikte teorik olarak insanın güç yetiremeyeceği fiillerden sorumlu tutulup tutulamayacağı (teklîf-i mâ lâ yutâk) hususunda farklı görüşler benimsemişlerdir. Bu tartışma kelâm ilminde ta‘dîl ve tecvîr, fıkıh usulünde ise emir konuları içinde ele alınıp incelenmiştir. Meşakkat kelimesi -Arapça’da konduğu asıl mânaya bakılmaksızın- kökündeki “yorma” anlamı mutlak biçimde alındığında güç yetirilenlerin yanı sıra güç yetirilemeyen durumları da kapsar. Güç yetirilemeyecek bir şeyle yükümlü tutmanın böyle adlandırılması, insanın havada uçmaya ve kötürümün ayağa kalkmaya çalışması örneklerinde olduğu gibi kişinin kendini boş yere sıkıntıya atması açısındandır. Şâtıbî, şer‘î hükümlerin içerdiği meşakkatlerin çeşitlerini incelerken önce bu hususu hatırlatır ve güç yetirilemeyen şeylerle sorumlu tutmanın şer‘î anlamda yükümlülük kapsamında düşünülemeyeceğine dikkat çeker. Meşakkatin bu mânası bir tarafa bırakılacak olursa şer‘î hükümlerde söz konusu olabilecek mükellefin güç yetirebileceği gerçek meşakkatleri üç kategoride ele almak mümkündür: 1. Bir amelde mûtat ölçünün dışına taşmanın verdiği rahatsızlık anlamındaki meşakkat. Bu da iki kısımdır. a) Doğrudan yükümlülük kapsamındaki fiillere has olan meşakkat. Bunlarda mûtat dışındaki durum bir defa bile gerçekleşse böyle bir meşakkat bulunur. Fıkıh terminolojisinde ruhsat olarak bilinen kolaylaştırma hükümleri bu tür durumlar için konmuştur. Meselâ hastalık ve yolculuk halinde oruç tutan kişi böyle bir meşakkatle karşı karşıyadır. b) Doğrudan belli fiillere has olmayıp yapılan işin bütününden ve devamlı olmasından kaynaklanan meşakkat. Bu tür meşakkat, sadece kişinin tahammülünün üstünde nâfile ibadetler yüklenmesi durumunda söz konusu olur ve bu kısımdakilerin devamlı olarak yapılmasıyla birinci kısımda sadece bir defa yapılmakla meydana gelen mûtat dışı güçlük ortaya çıkar. Onun için Hz. Peygamber bu kısma giren amellerin usanç ve bıkkınlık oluşturmayacak düzeyde tutulmasını tavsiye etmiştir (Buhârî, “Îmân”, 32, “Riḳāḳ”, 18; Müslim, “Müsâfirîn”, 215, 221). 2. Mûtat dışına çıkmakla ilgisi olmaksızın doğrudan teklifin verdiği meşakkat. Şöyle ki, yükümlülük öncesinde normal şartlarda dünya hayatının gereklerinden sayılmayan bir işle mükellef olmanın kişide meydana getirdiği mânevî baskı da bir tür meşakkattir. Zira kişi mükellefiyet altına girmekle kendini sınırlamış olur ve dünya hayatının zorunluluklarına ilâveten başka amelleri yerine getirmekten sorumlu hale gelir. 3. Bir önceki kısma bağlı olarak, yani yükümlü kılınmanın somut sonuçları tarzında ortaya çıkan meşakkat. Bunda da mûtat dışı bir sıkıntı söz konusu değildir; ancak teklif, yükümlü tutulan şahsı nefsinin arzuları dışına çıkaran bir olgu olduğundan arzulara aykırı davranmanın kişiye sıkıntı vermesi inkâr edilemez (Şâtıbî, II, 107-108, 119-121).
İzzeddin İbn Abdüsselâm, meşakkatlerin yükümlülüğü ortadan kaldırma veya hafifletmedeki etkisini açıklamak üzere zorluğun mükellefiyete konu olan fiilin tabiatından kaynaklanıp kaynaklanmamasına göre bir ayırım yapar. Başlangıçta konuyu ibadetler alanını esas alarak işlemekle beraber daha sonra bunun muamelât alanı için de geçerli olduğunu belirtir. Buna göre soğuk havada abdest alma, sıcak günlerde oruç tutma, hac için yolculuk yapma gibi çoğunlukla o fiilin tabii bir parçasını oluşturan zorluğun ibadet sorumluluğunu düşürmekte etkisi yoktur. Çünkü bu tür ibadetler meşakkatleriyle beraber meşrû kılınmıştır. İbadetlerden çoğunlukla ayrılabilen meşakkatler ise ağır, hafif ve orta ağırlıktaki meşakkat şeklinde üç dereceye ayrılır; fakat bunlara yakınlık ve uzaklığa göre değişen sınırsız derecelerden söz edilebilir. Cana ve can bütünlüğüne zarar vermesinden endişe edilen durumlarda olduğu gibi ağır meşakkatler hükümlerde hafifletmeye sebep olur; basit bir parmak acısı ve hafif baş ağrısı gibi meşakkatlerin ise hükümlere etkisi yoktur. Orta düzeydeki meşakkatlerde bu ikisine yakınlığa göre hüküm verilir. Birinci durumda kişinin dünyevî ve uhrevî ihtiyaçlarını yerine getirmesini sağlayan temel gereklerin korunması ibadetin kaçırılmasından evlâdır, zira aksi takdirde bunların emsali de yapılamaz hale gelecektir. İkinci durumda ibadetin önemi ve meşakkatin mükellefi zorlayacak düzeyde olmaması sebebiyle sıkıntıya katlanıp ibadeti yerine getirmek daha üstündür. Üçüncü durumda ise ilk kısma yakın olan meşakkat hafifletmeyi gerektirirken ikinci kısma yakın olan bunu gerektirmez. Somut olaylarda bunları belirlerken âlimler farklı görüşler ortaya koymuştur. Bazan iki dereceden hangisine daha yakın olduğuna karar verilemeyecek kadar orta çizgide bulunan durumlarla karşılaşır ve bunları etkileyen dış etkenler de dikkate alınarak bir karar verilir. Bu üçlü taksim ibadetler dışındaki fıkıh konularında da geçerlidir. Meselâ satım sözleşmesindeki belirsizlikler sakınılmasının güç olup olmaması açısından üç kısma ayrılır. Garar terimiyle ifade edilen bu durumdan sakınılması güçse müsamaha ile karşılanır (akdin sıhhatini etkilemez), sakınılması kolaysa göz ardı edilemez (akdi geçersiz kılar); ikisi arasında bir derecede olanın akdin sıhhatini ne ölçüde etkileyeceği bunlardan hangisine yakın olduğu değerlendirilerek belirlenir (Ḳavâʿidü’l-aḥkâm, II, 7-9). Fakihlerin bir şeyin meşakkatli olup olmadığını belirlemede genellikle örfe başvurduklarına işaret eden İbn Abdüsselâm ve Karâfî gibi âlimler, yaklaşık bir sınır belirlemenin şeriatın muteber saydığı bir şeyi geçersiz hale getirmekten daha iyi olduğunu, bunun için de şeriatın tanımlamadığı şeylerin yine şeriatın kaidelerinden hareketle yaklaşık olarak tanımlanması gerektiğini söylerler. Onlara göre nas, icmâ veya istidlâle dayanarak her ibadet için meşakkatin muteber olduğu bir alt sınır belirlenir; sonra da o ibadeti yaparken karşılaşılabilecek dengi veya daha ağır meşakkatler hükümde dikkate alınır, daha alt mertebedekiler ise dikkate alınmaz. Meselâ bir hadiste hac sırasında bitlenmenin verdiği rahatsızlık sebebiyle tıraş olunabileceği ifade edilmiştir (Buhârî, “Muḥṣar”, 6, 7; Müslim, “Ḥac”, 80, 83, 85). Şu halde buna denk olan yahut daha çok rahatsızlık veren her hastalığın tıraşı mubah kılacağına, daha hafif olanın ise mubah kılmayacağına hükmetmek uygun olur (a.g.e., II, 12-13; eẕ-Ẕaḫîre, I, 341). Ancak haccın kendisi bu kadar meşakkatle terkedilemez; bunun için can ya da malın tehlikede olması, azık ve taşıt bulamama gibi tahammül edilemez bir meşakkatin varlığı gerekir.
Meşakkatin giderilmesi ilkesi nasların yorumlanmasında etkili olsa da hakkında açık nas bulunan konularda sırf bu ilkeye dayanılarak hüküm verilemez. Yine istıslah yöntemiyle ictihad ederken, yani nas bulunmayan konularda genel prensiplere göre hüküm verirken bu ilke muteber bir ölçüt olmakla beraber meşakkatin kıyasta illet olarak kabul edilip edilemeyeceği hususunda geniş tartışmalar yapılmıştır. Usul âlimlerinin genel eğilimi buna olumsuz cevap verme yönündedir. Zira bir vasfın illet olarak belirlenebilmesi için açık biçimde bilinebilmesi ve kural altına alınabilmesi (zâhir ve munzabıt olması) gerekir. Meşakkat kişilere, zamana ve duruma göre değişiklik gösterir; aynı fiil bir şahsa meşakkat verirken bir başka şahsa vermeyebilir. Meselâ namazın kısaltılması ve orucun ertelenebilmesi hükmünün asıl amacı meşakkati gidermek olsa da bu kapalı bir vasıftır; halbuki sefer meşakkatin zâhir sebebidir (illet). Dolayısıyla meşakkat bulunmasa bile bunun zâhir sebebi olan seferîlik hali varsa mükellefin ruhsattan yararlanabileceğine, buna karşılık daha ağır meşakkat çekse bile sefer halinde olmayanın bu ruhsattan yararlanamayacağına hükmedilmiştir (Debûsî, s. 101; ayrıca bk. HİKMET; İLLET).
Bazı meselelerde fakihlerin birtakım soyut ifadelerle değerlendirmeler yaptığı görülürse de (meselâ bk. İmâmü’l-Haremeyn el-Cüveynî, s. 444-446; Zerkeşî, III, 171) hükümlerin kolaylaştırılmasında etkili olacak meşakkati belirleyen genel, sabit ve takdire kapalı bir ölçü verilmesinin mümkün olmaması bir yana böyle bir yol izlemenin anılan ilkeyi amacından uzaklaştırmış olacağı açıktır. Zira bu takdirde konunun tabiatındaki izâfîlik ve her meseleye has özellikler göz ardı edilmiş olur. Meselâ ramazan orucuyla mükellef olan kişinin bunu erteleyebilmesi ve su varken teyemmüm edebilmek için ne tür bir meşakkatin bulunması gerekeceği hususunu aynı kurala bağlamak mümkün değildir (a.g.e., III, 172-173). Bununla birlikte meşakkatin hükümleri etkilediği kabul edilen hemen bütün örneklerde dinin yüklediği sorumluluklara ek bir külfet getirme özelliğinin dikkate alındığı söylenebilir.
Meşakkat doğurduğu için hükümlerin hafifletilmesine sebep olan haller yolculuk, hastalık, zorlama (ikrah), unutma, bilmeme, zorluk ve umûmü’l-belvâ, ehliyetsizlik ve ehliyet noksanlığı olmak üzere yedi ana başlık altında toplanmıştır. Meşakkatin ilgili hükme tesiri ise ibadetlerle ilgili sorumluluğu hafifletmek, tamamen düşürmek veya yerine daha kolay bir sorumluluk ikame etmek; ibadetin zamanını öne almak, geciktirmek veya düzenini değiştirmek ya da yasağı kaldırmak gibi muhtelif şekillerde gerçekleşir. Nitekim yolculuk halinde namazın rek‘at sayısı azaltılmış, hayız ve lohusalık hallerinde kadınların namaz sorumluluğu tamamen kaldırılmış, abdest ve gusül yerine teyemmüm ve oruç yerine fidye ikame edilmiş, Arafat’ta öğle ile ikindi namazının öğle vaktinde birlikte kılınmasına izin verilmek suretiyle ikindi namazının vakti öne alınmış, Müzdelife’de ise akşam ile yatsı namazının yatsı vaktinde birlikte kılınmasına izin verilerek akşam namazının vakti tehir edilmiş, korku halinde namazın kılınış biçimi değiştirilmiş, boğazına bir şey kaçtığı için boğulma tehlikesi geçiren kişinin şarap içmesinin haramlığı kaldırılmıştır (İzzeddin İbn Abdüsselâm, II, 6-7; İbn Nüceym, s. 92).
Meşakkat dinin hedefi ve bir ibadet tarzı olmadığından kişinin daha fazla sevap kazanmak için kendisini dinen istenmemiş bir meşakkate atması câiz görülmemiştir. Hz. Peygamber hacca yaya gitmeyi adayan yaşlı bir kimseye, kendisine eziyet etmesine Allah’ın ihtiyacı olmadığını söyleyerek hayvana binmesini emretmiştir (Buhârî, “Ṣayd”, 27). Ancak meşakkat sebebiyle kendisine kolaylık tanınan bir kimsenin zorlanarak o ibadeti yapması halinde eğer ölüm yahut büyük bir zarar görme korkusu bulunmuyorsa yaptığı ibadet sahih olur. Meselâ hasta bir kimse cuma namazına gitme meşakkatine katlansa kendisinden farz sâkıt olur; fakat zikredilen tehlikeler söz konusu iken oruç tutacak olsa orucunu bozması gerekir, tutarsa günahkâr olur, hatta Gazzâlî’ye göre orucunun geçerli olmaması muhtemeldir (Zerkeşî, III, 173). Meşakkatin duruma göre ağırlaştığı amellerde kişinin daha hafif olanı araştırması gerekir; bu mümkün olmayıp meşakkati ağır olan durumda ibadeti yapmak zorunda kalırsa yaptığı amelin sevabı karşılaştığı meşakkate göre artar. Meselâ evi camiye uzak olan kişinin camide kıldığı namazın sevabı evi yakın olan kimsenin camide kıldığı namazın sevabından daha büyüktür. Resûl-i Ekrem’in Hz. Âişe’ye, özrü sebebiyle yapamadığı umreyi daha sonra yaptığında alacağı sevabın çektiği meşakkat nisbetinde olacağını söylemesi (Buhârî, “ʿUmre”, 8; Müslim, “Ḥac”, 126) bu anlamdadır. İbn Abdüsselâm, bu durumda kişinin meşakkatten dolayı değil meşakkate Allah için katlandığından dolayı sevap kazanacağını, tahammülün sevabının meşakkatin şiddetine ve hafifliğine göre değişeceğini, aralarında sevap bakımından farklılık bulunmakla birlikte esas ibadetlere (makāsıd) sevap yazıldığı gibi onların vesilelerine de sevap yazılacağını belirtir. Aynı âlim bir ibadetin daha hafif olduğu halde zaman, mekân ve dindeki yerine göre daha faziletli olabileceğini, nitekim Kadir gecesinde yahut Mescid-i Harâm’da kılınan iki rek‘at nâfile namazın diğer zamanlarda ve yerlerde kılınan daha çok rek‘atlı nâfileden, iki rek‘at farz namazın daha çok rek‘atlı nâfileden, 1 dirhemlik zekâtın daha fazla verilen sadakadan üstün olduğunu söyleyerek amelin sevabının meşakkate göre olmasının genel geçer bir kural olmadığını ileri sürmüştür (Ḳavâʿidü’l-aḥkâm, I, 29-32). Ancak Bedreddin el-Aynî, sözü edilen durumlardaki sevabın çokluğunun kendilerinden değil onlarda bulunan vasıflardan kaynaklandığını ifade ederek kuralın genel geçer olmasına bir engel bulunmadığını belirtir (ʿUmdetü’l-ḳārî, X, 124; krş. Kādî Abdülcebbâr, XI, 102-103).
Fıkıh kitaplarında ilgili hükümlerin gerekçelerinin izahı sadedinde meşakkati giderme kuralına sık sık atıfta bulunulduğu gibi kavâid kitaplarında müstakil bölümler halinde konuyla ilgili kurallara yer verilmiştir. Mecelle’nin de kanunlaştırdığı, “Meşakkat teysîri celbeder”; “Bir iş dıyk oldukta müttesi‘ olur”; “Zaruretler memnu olan şeyleri mubah kılar” (md. 17-18, 22) gibi kaideler bunların başında gelir. Hanefîler’den Cessâs, bütün tartışmalı meselelerde darlığa götüren şeylerin giderilmesi ve genişlik gerektiren şeyin öncelikli olarak göz önünde tutulması kuralını zikreder (Aḥkâmü’l-Ḳurʾân, V, 90). “Bir şey daraldığı zaman genişler” kaidesini İmam Şâfiî’nin (Tâceddin es-Sübkî, I, 48) ve aynı anlama gelen, “Haddini aşan şey zıddına döner” kaidesini de Gazzâlî’nin zikrettiği ifade edilmiştir (Süyûtî, s. 172; Ahmed b. Muhammed el-Hamevî, I, 273; krş. Gazzâlî, II, 96). Klasik dönemde meşakkat kavramını en geniş biçimde İzzeddin İbn Abdüsselâm, Şehâbeddin el-Karâfî, Şâtıbî gibi müellifler ele alıp incelemişlerdir; modern dönemde ise konuyla ilgili müstakil çalışmalar kaleme alınmıştır (bk. bibl.).
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2004 yılında Ankara’da basılan 29. cildinde, 357-360 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.