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MEZÂLİM Skip to content İslâm devletlerinde en yüksek idarî-adlî yargı ve denetleme kurumu.
Mezâlim sözlükte “zalimin elinde bulunan başkasına ait nesne, kişinin kendisinden zulmen alındığından şikâyetçi olduğu şey, mazlum hakkı” gibi anlamlara gelen mazlime kelimesinin çoğuludur. Hz. Peygamber’in narha dair, “Can ve mal konusunda haksızlığa vesile olan şeyi (mazlime) benim yapmamı herhalde hiçbiriniz istemezsiniz” meâlindeki bir hadisinde geçen kelime (Müsned, II, 237) bu anlamıyla diğer bazı hadislerde de kullanılmış (Dârimî, “Büyûʿ”, 13; İbn Mâce, “Ticârât”, 27; Ebû Dâvûd, “Büyûʿ”, 49), Buhârî mezâlimin geçtiği hadisleri “Kitâbü’l-Meẓâlim” başlığı altında toplamıştır.
Sözlük anlamına bağlı olarak mezâlim fıkıh literatüründe hem şahsa hem mala yönelik haksızlıklar için kullanılsa da daha çok malla ilgili hak ihlâllerinde ve “gasp, hırsızlık gibi yollarla kazanılan mal ve elde edilen gelirler, mükelleflerden kanunsuz olarak tahsil edilen vergiler, hukuka aykırı şekilde el konulan mallar” anlamında yaygınlık kazanmıştır. İdarî ve hukukî bir müessese olarak ise mezâlim “normal mahkemelerin karara bağlamakta zorlanacağı ceza ve hukuk davalarını karara bağlamak ve uygulamak, idarî şikâyetleri dinlemek üzere oluşturulmuş yüksek kurul” şeklinde tanımlanabilir.
Mâverdî, Ferrâ ve Nüveyrî gibi klasik müellifler, mezâlim kurumunun kökenini İslâm öncesinde Mekke’de haksızlığa uğrayanlara yardımcı olmak için oluşturulan, Hz. Muhammed’in de faaliyetlerine katıldığı, İslâm’ı tebliğe başladıktan sonra da uygulamalarını tasvip ettiği Hilfü’l-fudûl teşkilâtına kadar götürürler. Fars hükümdarlarının mezâlim uygulamasına da işaret eden bu müellifler, Resûl-i Ekrem’in ensardan biriyle Zübeyr b. Avvâm arasındaki su hakkı ihtilâfını çözüme kavuşturmasını bu uygulamaya örnek gösterirler. Aynı örneğe atıfta bulunan geç dönem müelliflerinden Kettânî, Resûlullah’ın kadı ve âmillerin verdiği hükümleri gözden geçirdiğini söyleyerek mezâlim kurumunun görevini bizzat Hz. Peygamber’in yürüttüğünü belirtir. Ancak Buhârî’nin “Kitâbü’l-Meẓâlim”de yer verdiği, aralarında su hakkı ihtilâfına dair kararın da bulunduğu Resûl-i Ekrem’in kazâî kararlarının hemen hepsi, sonraki devirlerde diğer yargı kurumlarından ayrılıp bağımsız hale gelen mezâlimin değil normal adlî mahkemelerin, bazıları da hisbe kurumunun yetki alanına girmektedir. Öte yandan İbnü’t-Tallâ‘ el-Kurtubî, Hz. Peygamber’in verdiği kazâî hükümleri derlediği Aḳżıyetü Resûlillâh adlı eserinde bu su davasına ve diğer davalara yer verdiği halde mezâlim konusundan söz etmemektedir. Resûl-i Ekrem’in hukuk ve genel ahlâk ilkeleriyle bağdaşmayan fiillere karşı adaletin sağlanması yönünde titizlik gösterdiği bilinmekle beraber mezâlimin onun döneminde genel yargının dışında bir kurum niteliği kazandığını söylemek mümkün değildir.
Mâverdî, Ebû Ya‘lâ el-Ferrâ ve Nüveyrî, İslâmiyet’in ilk yıllarında din hükümlerine samimiyetle uyulmasından dolayı müslümanlar arasında haksızlık olaylarının pek meydana gelmediğini, bazan doğabilecek haksızlıkları önleme ve giderme hususunda öğüt ve kınamanın yeterli olduğunu, diğer ihtilâfları çözme konusunda adlî yargının kâfi geldiğini, bu sebeple Hz. Ali’ye gelinceye kadar ilk halifeler döneminde mezâlime ihtiyaç duyulmadığını belirtir. Kettânî ise Hz. Peygamber’den sonra mezâlim fonksiyonunu dört halifenin devam ettirdiğini söyler. Bu tesbitten Mâverdî ve diğerlerinin mezâlimi bir kurum olarak düşündükleri, Kettânî’nin ise mezâlim çerçevesinde değerlendirilebilecek uygulamaları göz önünde bulundurduğu anlaşılmaktadır.
Hz. Ebû Bekir’in iki yıllık hilâfet döneminden mezâlime konu olabilecek çok az bilgi ulaşmıştır. İbn Sa‘d’ın kaydettiğine göre Hz. Ebû Bekir, umre için Mekke’ye gittiğinde zulüm ve baskı yüzünden şikâyeti olanları dinlemek için Dârünnedve yakınında bir yere oturmuş, şikâyetçi bulunmayınca halkın huzurunda valiyi takdir etmiştir. Hz. Ömer, her yıl valileri hacca çağırarak hacılara valilerinden şikâyetçi olup olmadıklarını sorar, düzenlediği oturumlarda malî yolsuzluk ve usulsüzlükleri, zulüm ve işkence olaylarının sorumlularını halkın huzurunda sorgular, valilerine dahi bu yönde kısas uygulamaktan çekinmezdi. Halife Ömer, her yıl hac mevsiminde yaptığı konuşmalarda valilere yetkilerinin sınırlarını hatırlatırken halka da haklarını anlatmıştır. Onun memurları aleyhindeki şikâyetleri bizzat incelediği, bazı olayları Muhammed b. Mesleme’ye veya kurduğu tahkikat komisyonuna inceletip karara bağladığı belirtilmektedir. Hz. Osman’ın da onun geleneğini sürdürerek valileri hac mevsimlerinde Mekke’de topladığı anlaşılmaktadır. İbn Haldûn, Abbâsî Halifesi Mühtedî-Billâh zamanına kadar genelde mezâlim oturumlarını bizzat halifelerin yaptığını, bununla beraber Hz. Ömer’in bazan kadı ile birlikte oturuma katıldığını söyler. Mâverdî, Hz. Ali’nin mezâlim davasına konu olan bazı olayları çözüme kavuşturduğunu, İbn Haldûn ve Makrîzî dört halife içinde mezâlim olaylarını ilk inceleyenin Hz. Ali olduğunu belirtirler. Bu ifadelerden hareketle Hasan İbrâhim Hasan, Ali İbrâhim Hasan ve Subhî es-Sâlih gibi çağdaş müellifler mezâlimin Hz. Ali döneminde kurulmuş olduğu görüşünü benimsemişlerdir.
Emevî Halifesi Abdülmelik b. Mervân ilk defa mezâlim oturumları için belli bir gün tayin etmiş ve Kadı Ebû İdrîs el-Evdî’yi bazı davalarda yetkili kılmıştır. Bu uygulamayı daha sıkı bir şekilde sürdüren Ömer b. Abdülazîz, kendisinden önceki Emevî hânedanı mensuplarının ve valilerin beytülmâl ve halk aleyhine işledikleri suçları, hukuka aykırı olarak elde ettikleri gelirleri, gasbettikleri arazileri, yandaşlarına sağladıkları menfaatleri bizzat başında bulunduğu mezâlim oturumlarında yargılamış ve hukuka aykırı yollarla edinilen malları sahiplerine iade etmiştir. Hazineye gelir sağlamak amacıyla yapılan haksızlıklar da onun döneminde hazineden ödenmiş, Irak beytülmâlinde para kalmadığı için Şam hazinesinden para getirtilmiştir (İbn Abdülhakem, s. 129-134). Bu davaların sanıkları özellikle hânedan mensupları ve devlet görevlileri olduğundan Ömer b. Abdülazîz kimseye güvenmeyip mezâlim oturumlarını bizzat yönetmiştir. Emevî hânedanından kendisine intikal eden mirası meşrû olmadığı düşüncesiyle hazineye ve hak sahiplerine iade etmiştir. Ondan sonra gelen Emevî hükümdarları mezâlim konusuna genellikle önem vermemişlerse de Hişâm b. Abdülmelik’in bir mezâlim davasına baktığı ve onun zamanında Horasan Valisi Nasr b. Seyyâr’ın Mansûr b. Ömer’i Merv’e sâhibü’l-mezâlim olarak tayin ettiği bilinmektedir. Bununla birlikte mezâlimin Emevîler devrinde kurumsal bir nitelik kazandığını söylemek zordur.
Abbâsîler döneminde mezâlim devlet idaresinin önemli unsurlarından biri haline gelmiş ve üçüncü halife Mehdî-Billâh devrinde (775-785) kurum niteliğini kazanmıştır. Nitekim kaynaklarda Mehdî’den itibaren mezâlim oturumlarına başkanlık eden halifelerin adları zikredilmektedir. Ancak Mehdî’nin babası Ebû Ca‘fer el-Mansûr devrinde de mezâlim müessesesinin bulunduğu, Hasan b. Umâre’nin bu vazifeye tayin edildiği, ardından mezâlim görevinin kadıya verildiği, Mansûr’un bu görevi Ebû Hanîfe’ye de teklif ettiği belirtilmektedir. Hz. Ömer devrinde hazine adına yapılan müsâdereler doğrudan beytülmâle konulurken daha sonra bunlar için özel bir divan kurulmuş, bu divan Mansûr zamanında “beytü mâli’l-mezâlim” adıyla yeniden oluşturulmuştur. Mehdî-Billâh’ın ardından Hâdî-İlelhak, Hârûnürreşîd ve Me’mûn mezâlim oturumları düzenlemişler, Hârûnürreşîd’den sonra halifeler mezâlim davalarına bakma yetkisini vezirlere veya kadılara devretmeye başlamışlardır. Bununla birlikte Muktedir-Billâh’ın, 314 (926) yılında mezâlim alanına giren bir davaya bizzat nezaret ederek Vezir Ebü’l-Abbas el-Hasîbî’yi kadıların ve fakihlerin de bulunduğu bir mahkemede yolsuzluk yapma veya buna imkân sağlama suçuyla yargıladığı bilinmektedir. Mühtedî-Billâh mezâlimi geliştirerek kurumsallaştırmış, bunun için Kubbetü’l-mezâlim adını verdiği kubbeli, dört kapılı büyük bir bina yaptırmıştır.
Aynı dönemde mezâlim müessesesi eyaletlerde de yaygınlaşmış, bu bölgelerde yeni devletlerin ortaya çıkmasıyla birlikte her devlet ve iktidar kurumda kendine göre bazı düzenlemeler yapmıştır. Mısır’da mezâlim oturumu düzenleyen ilk hükümdar olan Ahmed b. Tolun (880-884) iktidarını güçlendirmek için bu müesseseye büyük önem vermiştir. Burada Tolunoğulları’ndan İhşîdîler, Fâtımîler ve Memlükler’e, doğuda Karahanlılar, Gazneliler, Hârizmşahlar ve Selçuklular’dan Anadolu beyliklerine kadar bütün Türk devletlerinde ve bu coğrafyada kurulan Sâmânîler’de mezâlim kurumu devlet teşkilâtının önemli bir unsuru olarak görev icra etmiştir. Mahiyet ve işleyişi bakımından bazı farklılıklar bulunmakla birlikte bu müessese Endülüs’te de doğudakine benzer bir gelişme göstermiştir.
Devlet teşkilâtında Abbâsî ve İran örneğini takip eden Fâtımîler’de mezâlim kurumu özel bir önem taşır. Fâtımîler’de ilk mezâlim oturumu Halife Muiz-Lidînillâh’ın başkumandanı Cevher es-Sıkıllî riyâsetinde yapılmıştır. Fâtımîler’de bu müessese büyük gelişme göstermiş, vezirlerin düzenlediği oturumlar için bazı teşrifat kuralları yerleşmiştir. Selçuklular’da ağır siyasî suçlular sultanın başkanlığında toplanan Dîvân-ı Mezâlim’de yargılanırdı. Siyâsetnâme adlı eserinde mezâlime geniş yer veren Nizâmülmülk vezir sıfatıyla haftada iki gün Dîvân-ı Mezâlim’e reislik yapmıştır. Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti’nde de Mezâlim Divanı kurulduğu, sultanların büyük Selçuklu geleneğini sürdürdüğü, haftada iki gün divana gelerek adalet dağıttığı, şer‘î davaları kadıya havale ettiği, örfî davaları divan aracılığıyla çözümlediği kaydedilmektedir. Osmanlılar’da Mezâlim Divanı daha geniş yetkilerle donatılarak Dîvân-ı Hümâyun adıyla ortaya çıkmıştır. Dîvân-ı Mezâlim aynı adla ve tarihteki benzer işlevleriyle Suudi Arabistan’da 1954’te yeniden kurulmuş, 1963 ve 1970 yıllarında yapılan düzenlemelerle diğer mahkemelerden bağımsız hale getirilmiştir (Schacht, s. 96).
Mâverdî ve Ebû Ya‘lâ el-Ferrâ el-Aḥkâmü’s-sulṭâniyye’lerinde, Kalkaşendî Ṣubḥu’l-aʿşâ’da mezâlimi devletin genel yönetim teşkilâtı içinde ele almış ve devlet başkanının görevleri içinde mütalaa etmiştir. İbn Haldûn da kurumu halifelik makamının dinî görevlerinden biri olarak yargı yetkisi içinde değerlendirmiştir. Modern yazarlardan bazısı mezâlimi devletin yasama ve yargılama fonksiyonları içinde, bazısı yürütme, bir kısmı da yargı kurumu olarak incelemiştir.
Klasik kaynaklarda mezâlim müessesesinin görevleri valilerin ve yöneticilerin halka yaptıkları zulümler, maliye memurlarının mükelleflere karşı kanunsuz fiil ve icraatları, malî dairelerde gelir gider kayıt ve hesaplarıyla görevli memurların yanlışlıkları, memur ve askerlerin maaşlarında gecikme, eksilme veya fazla ödemeden doğan ihtilâflar, idarecilerin ve nüfuzlu kişilerin hazine yahut kendi adlarına yaptıkları gasp ve haksız istimlâk davaları, özel veya kamu vakıflarının denetlenmesi, davalıların güçlü olması sebebiyle hâkimlerin verilen kararı infaz edemeyecekleri davalar, cemaatle namaz ve hac gibi topluca icra edilen ibadetlerle ilgili meseleler, sıradan kişiler arasındaki adlî ihtilâflar şeklinde on maddede sıralanmıştır. Mezâlim konusunda kapsamlı bir çalışma yapan Émile Tyan kurumun görevlerini idarî ihtilâflar ve bazı kamu görevlerinin idarî denetimi, kadı mahkemelerinin denetlenmesi ve kararlarının uygulanması, adlî ihtilâfların görülmesi ve diğer görevler olarak dört bölümde ele almıştır.
Devlet adamlarının halk ve yüksek devlet görevlilerinin devlet aleyhine işledikleri suçlarla adlî yargı ve hisbe gibi idarî müesseselerinin güçlerini aşan davaların mezâlim konusu olarak ön plana çıktığı, alt mahkeme kararlarının temyiz için Mezâlim Divanı’na sunulduğu görülmektedir. Böylece mezâlim kurumunun yargı işlevinin genel bir yargı olduğu söylenebilir. Bunun yanı sıra Mezâlim Divanı azil ve tayin, mahkeme kararlarının icrası, fiyat artışlarının önlenmesine yönelik tedbirler geliştirilmesi gibi görevler de ifa etmiştir.
İlk dönemlerde daha çok halifenin düzenlediği oturumlarda gerçekleşen mezâlim gelişme sürecinde başkan ve üyelerden oluşan bir kurul haline dönüşmüştür. Devletlere ve dönemlere göre Mezâlim Divanı’nın üye ve yardımcı elemanlarının sayısı makam ve unvanlarında bazı değişiklikler olduğu görülmektedir. Mezâlim Divanı’nın üyeleri Mâverdî, Ebû Ya‘lâ el-Ferrâ ve Nüveyrî gibi müelliflerin kitaplarında halife (devlet başkanı), vezir, vali veya onlar adına oturumlara başkanlık yapan mezâlim görevlileri (vâli’l-mezâlim, sâhibü’l-mezâlim / nâzırü’l-mezâlim) şeklinde beş ana sınıf olarak gösterilmekteyse de sayı bunlarla sınırlı kalmamıştır. Bunlardan birinin başkanlık yaptığı Mezâlim Divanı’nda ayrıca kadılar ve hâkimler, fakihler, bilirkişiler, askerî kadı ve ordu temsilcileri (Fâtımîler ve Memlükler’de), maliye temsilcileri (Fâtımîler ve Memlükler’de), muhtesip ve sâhibü’ş-şurtanın üye olarak görev yaptığı, hâcib, münâdî, devâdâr, kıssadar ve saray çavuşlarıyla güvenlik görevlilerinin de yardımcı sınıflar olarak çalıştığı kaydedilmektedir.
İlk devirlerde halka açık alanlarda, medrese ve mescidlerde veya hükümdar saraylarında yapılan mezâlim oturumları için Abbâsîler döneminde özel mekânlar tahsis edilmeye başlanmıştır. Hâdî-İlelhak zamanında Bağdat’ta Dârü’l-mezâlim adıyla bir bina inşa edilmiş, daha sonra Mühtedî-Billâh Kubbetü’l-mezâlim’i yaptırmıştır. Fâtımîler’de halifenin sarayında mezâlim oturumları için özel bir mekân ayrılmıştır. Nûreddin Mahmud Zengî, Halep’te ve Şam’da mezâlim oturumlarının düzenlenmesi için inşa ettirdiği binaya Dârüladl adını vermiş, ardından dârüladller Eyyûbîler ve Memlükler’de yaygınlık kazanmıştır.
Mezâlim, yargı fonksiyonu icra eden kadı mahkemeleriyle hisbe ve şurta teşkilâtı gibi benzeri kurumlarla karşılaştırılmıştır. Mâverdî, mezâlimle kadı mahkemelerinin birbirinden ayrıldığı noktaları on madde halinde sıralamıştır. Bu farklılıkların hemen hepsi yargılama usulüyle ilgili olsa da mezâlim mahkemelerinin görev alanı ve yetkilerinin diğerlerinden daha geniş olduğunu göstermektedir. Kadı mahkemelerinin baktığı adlî davaların yanı sıra, hem davalıların nüfuz sahibi olmalarından dolayı bu mahkemelerin bakmaktan âciz oldukları hukuk ve ceza davalarına hem de idarî davalara bakan mezâlim mahkemesi, gerek yargılama gerekse yargı kararlarının yerine getirilmesi açısından diğer mahkemelerden daha geniş imkân ve yetkilere sahiptir.
Mezâlim kurumunu günümüzdeki hukuk müesseseleriyle karşılaştıran bazı modern müellifler onu devletin yüksek bir danışma organı olan danıştayın, bir kısmı da görev benzerliğini dikkate alarak yargıtayın karşılığı olarak değerlendirmiştir. Devletin malî denetim organı olan sayıştayın ifa ettiği görevin mezâlim kurumunun görevleri arasında bulunduğuna da dikkat çekilmiştir
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2004 yılında Ankara’da basılan 29. cildinde, 515-518 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.