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MİLK Skip to content Fıkıhta ağırlıklı olarak aynî hakları belirtmek üzere kullanılan bir terim.
Sözlükte “bir şeye sahip olmak, bir nesne üzerinde tek başına ve doğrudan hâkimiyet kurmak; güç, iktidar” gibi anlamlara gelen milk (melk, mülk), fıkıh literatüründe mutlak aynî hak olan mülkiyet yanında sınırlı aynî hakları da (irtifak, rehin vb.) ifade eden bir terimdir. Milk tanımlarında “başkalarının hâkimiyet alanından çıkarılmış, hak sahibine özgü yetki sağlama” (ihtisâs hâciz) unsurunun vurgulandığı (İbn Nüceym, V, 278), dolayısıyla bu kavramın eşya üzerinde doğrudan hâkimiyet temin eden ve herkese karşı ileri sürülebilen hakları belirttiği görülür; bu yönüyle milkin Kara Avrupası hukuk sistemindeki aynî hak terimine karşılık geldiği söylenebilir. İslâm hukukunda kişilerin eşya üzerindeki hak ve yetkileri milk, hukuk ve ibâha şeklinde üçlü bir ayırım çerçevesinde ele alınır; milk bu yetkilerin en güçlüsü iken ibâha en zayıfıdır. Hukuk seviyesinde bir hak tipi olan “hakku’l-milk” ile “aynî hak” anlamındaki milkin birbirine karışmaması için ikincisi genellikle tamlama içinde değil yalın olarak kullanılır. Hatta bazı fakihler, ikisine birlikte temas etme ihtiyacı duyduklarında milki ayırt etmek üzere bundan “hakīkatü’l-milk” diye söz ederler (Serahsî, VII, 176; XV, 123; ayrıca bk. HAK; MÜLKİYET).
Milk kavramıyla ifade edilen hakların iki temel unsuru vardır. 1. Eşya üzerinde hak sahibine has mutlak bir tasarruf kudreti vermesi (iç muhteva). Bu yetki nesneyi zilyedliğinde bulundurma, kullanma, yararlanma, semerelerini alma, tüketme, yok etme gibi fiilî ve nesnenin mülkiyetinin başkasına geçirilmesi, sınırlı aynî haklara konu edilmesi, hakkın bedel karşılığı düşürülmesi gibi hukukî tasarrufları kapsar. Türlerine göre milk, sahibine eşya üzerinde mümkün olan her türlü tasarruf yetkisini aynı anda verebileceği gibi bu yetkilerden sadece birini veya birkaçını da sağlayabilir. Meselâ mülkiyet hakkında milk en geniş ve nihaî sınırlarına ulaşmıştır. Mülkiyetin dışındaki milk çeşitleri ise sahibine nitelik bakımından aynı (doğrudan ve inhisarî hâkimiyet biçiminde), fakat kapsam bakımından farklı yetkiler verir. Milk tanımlarında kullanılan ihtisas kavramı bu inhisarı da içine alan bir anlama sahiptir. Hak sahibi, başka bir şahsın belirli bir eylem ve davranışta bulunmasına gerek kalmadan bu tasarruf yetkisini doğrudan doğruya kullanabilir. Milkin iç muhtevasını oluşturan unsurun asgari şartının eşyadan bedel alabilme mi yoksa eşyadan intifa yetkisi mi olduğu tartışılmıştır. Birçok fakihe göre bu iki yetkiden sadece birini veren bazı haklar da milk niteliğindedir. Meselâ rehin ve hapis hakkı özellikle Hanefîler’de -sadece borç ödenmediğinde malı paraya çevirme yetkisi veren ve rehin konusu maldan yararlanmayı içermeyen bir hak olduğu halde- milk niteliklidir. 2. Herkese karşı ileri sürülebilmesi (dış muhteva). Bir hakkın milk nitelikli sayılmasında, hak sahibine eşya üzerinde verdiği yetkilerin yanında onun üçüncü şahıslar karşısındaki durumu da önem taşır. Milk nitelikli hak onu ihlâl eden diğer bütün insanlara karşı korunma özelliğini içermekte ve bu husus hakka mutlaklık kazandırmaktadır. Bir başka anlatımla milk bir nesne üzerinde en güçlü yetkileri verme yanında bu yetki alanı diğer bütün insanların yetki alanlarından ayrılmıştır. Hanefîler’in bazı tanımlarında geçen “hâciz” kaydı özellikle bu noktaya yapılan bir vurgu niteliğindedir.
Klasik eserlerde milk temel olarak konusunun ayn ya da menfaat oluşuna göre sınıflandırılır. Buna göre bir malın hem aynı hem de menfaati üzerinde kurulu olan milke “kâmil (mutlak) milk” denilirken ayn ve menfaatten sadece birini kapsayan yahut menfaatten de dar bir alanla (intifâ vb.) sınırlı olanlara “nâkıs milk” adı verilir. Bu da bütün yönleriyle Kara Avrupası hukuk sistemindeki mutlak aynî hak ve sınırlı aynî haklar şeklindeki ayırıma benzer.
Milk terimiyle ifade edilen haklar ayn ve/veya menfaat üzerinde kurulu olmasına göre dört gruba ayrılır. 1. Eşyanın hem aynı hem menfaati üzerinde kurulu milk (milkü’l-ayn ve’l-menfaa). Bu anlamıyla milk eşya üzerindeki hâkimiyetin en geniş kapsamına ulaşmasını belirtir ve günümüz hukuk dilindeki mülkiyet hakkına tekabül eder (Kadri Paşa, md. 11). 2. Eşyanın sadece menfaatlerini içeren milk (milkü’l-menfaa bilâ ayn). Mülkiyet hakkından sonra milkin en yaygın şekli olan bu aynî hak türünde hak sahibi, çıplak mülkiyeti (aynı) başkasına ait bir eşyayı kullanma ve ondan istifade etme yetkisini taşır. İslâm hukukçuları eşyanın ayn ve menfaat şeklinde iki ayrı parçadan meydana geldiği düşüncesinde olduğu için menfaatler bir eşyanın aynından bağımsız biçimde hukukî işlemlere ve haklara konu olabilmektedir. Bunun sonucunda menfaat üzerinde kurulu olan milk de aynî hakların iç ve dış muhtevasına sahip, mutlak ve inhisar ifade eden bir hak biçiminde düşünülmüştür. Milkü’l-menfaa içindeki hak türleri intifâ hakkı, irtifaklar vb. şekillerde tasnif edilmiş olmayıp hakkın adı ilgili işleme göre (kira, iâre vb.) belirlenmektedir. Mezhepler arasında görüş ayrılığı bulunmakla birlikte milkü’l-menfaa temelde şu işlemlerle meydana gelir: a) Kira. İcâre akdi kiralananın menfaati üzerinde milk doğuran bir işlem olarak değerlendirilir (İbn Receb, s. 196). b) Vasiyet. Bir eşyanın sadece menfaatlerinin vasiyeti hak sahibi lehine kural olarak milkü’l-menfaa doğurur. c) Vakıf. Hanefî dışındaki mezheplerin genel eğilimi vakfın kendisine vakfedilen kişi açısından milkü’l-menfaa doğurduğu şeklindedir (Süyûtî, s. 326). d) Âriyet. Hanefîler’in çoğunluğuna ve Mâlikîler’e göre iâre, âriyet alana bu akde konu mal üzerinde milkü’l-menfaa sağlar. 3. Eşyanın sadece aynı üzerinde kurulu olup menfaatleri içermeyen milk (milkü’l-ayn bilâ menfaa). Bu tür milk, sahibine eşyaya ait menfaatler üzerinde değil sadece eşyanın ayn denilen maddî yapısı üzerinde tasarruf yetkisi verir. Eşyanın menfaatiyle çıplak mülkiyetinin (rakabe) bu şekilde ayrılması ancak vasiyet işlemiyle gerçekleşir (İbn Receb, s. 196; Mustafa Ahmed ez-Zerkā, I, 259). 4. Salt intifâ yetkisi veren milk (milkü’l-intifâi’l-mücerred). Hak sahibinin bir eşyanın menfaatlerine bunlardan bizzat ve sadece kendisinin yararlanabileceği şekilde mâlik olmasıdır. Bu yetki, eşyanın menfaati üzerinde hukukî tasarruflarda bulunabilme imkânı vermediğinden menfaat üzerinde kurulu bir milk olarak görülmeyip intifâ şeklinde yeni bir terim üretilmiştir. İntifâ üzerine kurulu milkte kişi eşyadan bizzat istifade edebildiği ve bu yetkisini herkese karşı ileri sürebildiği için milkin asgari şartları oluşmuştur; fakat eşyadan bizzat istifadenin dışında hiçbir hukukî tasarrufta bulunamaz. Hakkını başkasına âriyet olarak devretmek gibi hukukî bir tasarrufta dahi bulunamayacağı için böyle bir durum hakkın ıskatı anlamı taşır. Hanefî dışındaki doktrinlerde kullanılan ve milkin en zayıf derecesi kabul edilen bu milk türünün hukukî niteliği diğerleri kadar açık biçimde ortaya konmuş değildir. Milkü’l-intifâ, birçok hukukî yetkiyi ve hak tipini belirtmek üzere kullanılan bir kavram olup başlıcaları şunlardır: a) Âriyet alanın milki. Şâfiî ve Hanbelî mezheplerinde âriyet alanın menfaate mâlik olmayıp intifâya mâlik olduğu kabul edilir. b) İlim talebesinin kaldığı medrese odaları üzerindeki süknâ hakları, satıcıların pazar yerleri üzerindeki hakları. c) Mâlikîler’de hâkim görüşe göre misafirin ikram edilen yemekten yemeye ilişkin yetkisi. d) Doğrudan kanundan doğan bazı irtifaklar. Ayrıca nikâh akdinin sağladığı helâllik hükmü de literatürde genellikle milkü’l-intifâ (Hanefîler’de milkü’l-müt‘a veya milkü’n-nikâh) terkibiyle ifade edilir (bk. MENFAAT). Öte yandan Hanefîler, bir eşyanın aynı ve menfaati yanında bu eşya üzerindeki zilyedliği de bağımsız bir hak konusu olarak düşündüklerinden “milkü’l-ayn”a karşılık “milkü’l-yed” (milkü’l-habs) tabirini kullanırlar; rehin hakkı ve hapis hakkı bu tür milkin esas örneğidir.
Milk, eşya üzerindeki aynî hakları ifade etmekle birlikte fıkıh literatüründe bu kelimenin eşya hukuku ve mal varlığı hakları çerçevesini aşan kullanımları da vardır. Hatta kul hakkı-Allah hakkı şeklindeki temel ayırımda kul hakkı kavramının neredeyse milk kavramıyla özdeşleştiği söylenebilir. Fakat eşya hukuku dışındaki alanlarda, meselâ bazı doktrinlerin nikâhta kocanın, kısas cezalarında mağdurun ya da yakınlarının yetkisini milk olarak nitelemesi daha çok milk kavramının dış muhtevası, yani herkese karşı ileri sürülebilir olma özelliğiyle alâkalıdır (Serahsî, V, 96, 141-142; Kâsânî, II, 331; İbnü’l-Hümâm, X, 259). Klasik kaynaklarda nâdiren kullanılan “milkü’d-deyn” terkibi ise özel bir milk türünü ifade etmez. Deyn üzerindeki hakkın milk olduğunu söyleyenler dahi burada gerçek anlamda milkten çok milkin bir türevinin söz konusu edildiğinin farkındadır (Hacak, İslam Hukukunun Klasik Kaynaklarında Hak Kavramının Analizi , s. 280 vd.).
İslâm hukukçuları, milki sağladığı yetkinin gücüne ve niteliğine göre kâmil ve zayıf şeklinde bir ayırıma tâbi tutmuşlardır. Yukarıda hakkın kapsamı açısından yapılan kâmil ve nâkıs milk ayırımındakinden farklı şekilde bunda tam milk bütün unsurlarını taşıyan milki ifade etmektedir. Zayıf milk ise mutlaklık ve inhisar unsurlarını, yani aynî hak özelliğini tam olarak taşımayan, güçsüz ve oluşumunu tamamlamamış milktir. Bu terimin literatürde özellikle iki durumu belirtmek için kullanıldığı görülür. Bunların ilki bilhassa satım sözleşmesinde alıcının akid yapıldığı anda ve mebîi teslim almadan önceki milkidir. Buradaki milkin zayıf olmasının anlamı kabz öncesi müşterinin milkinin tam teşekkül etmemiş gibi düşünülmesidir (Kâsânî, II, 313; V, 254). Diğeri ise bazı yarı aynî hak tipleriyle ilgili olup İslâm hukukçularının milk niteliğinde görmediklerini açıkça belirttikleri bu durumlarda teknik anlamda milk söz konusu değildir (Hacak, İslam Hukukunun Klasik Kaynaklarında Hak Kavramının Analizi , s. 230).
Milk niteliğindeki hakların ana konusunu mallar teşkil ettiği için mal niteliği taşımayan bazı nesneler üzerindeki yararlanma yetkileri aynî nitelikten yoksundur. Bu sebeple Hanefî dışındaki mezheplerin necis olmaları sebebiyle mal niteliğinde görmediği, ancak istifade konusu edilmesini kabul ettiği nesneler ihtisas hakkı denilen ve hukuk seviyesinde kalan bazı haklara konu olabilmektedir. Fakat bu hak türü milk niteliği taşımadığından hukuk düzenince sınırlı bir şekilde korunur ve bu nesneler satım sözleşmesi vb. işlemlere konu edilemez. Bu sınırlı tasarruf yetkisi de milk seviyesindeki hakları diğer yetkilerden ayıran temel bir özelliktir.
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