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MİSKİN Skip to content Yoksul, düşkün anlamında bir terim.
Arapça’da sükûnet kökünden türeyen miskîn “hiç veya yeteri kadar malı olmayan kimse, zelil, zayıf” mânasına gelir. Kök anlamından hareketle “yoksulluğun kendisini uyuşturduğu kişi” şeklinde açıklanmasını İbn Manzûr mübalağalı ism-i fâil olan kelimenin edilgen kılındığı gerekçesiyle isabetsiz bulur (Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “skn” md.). Halk ağzında uyuşuk, tembel, zavallı, hastalıklı, özellikle cüzzamlı kişiye de miskin adı verilir (Ebû Hilâl el-Askerî, s. 170-171). Bazı araştırmacılara göre Akkadca’da vatandaşlarla köleler arasındaki sınıf mensuplarından ihtiyaç sahiplerini ifade eden muşkênu /maşkênu kelimesi Ârâmîce üzerinden Arapça’ya miskin şeklinde geçmiştir (Koehler – Baumgartner, II, 605-606; benzer görüşler için bk. v. Soden, The Ancient Orient, s. 77-78; Speiser, s. 332-343). Kelime Ârâmîce ve Süryânîce’de meskînâ , İbrânîce’de misken /miskîn , Habeşçe’de meskân şeklinde yer alır (v. Soden, AHW , II, 684). Dinî bir terim olarak miskin zekât, ganimet, kefâret vb. konularda hak sahibini veya yardımın yapılacağı yoksul kişiyi ifade etmekle birlikte fakirle birleştiği ve ayrıldığı noktalar hususunda görüş ayrılıkları bulunmaktadır (aş.bk.).
Miskin Kur’an’da tekil olarak on bir, çoğul olarak (mesâkîn) on iki yerde geçer. Bu âyetlerde miskinlerin gözetilmesi, maddî yönden desteklenmesi ve yedirilmesi övülüp mağfiret sebebi sayılmış (meselâ bk. el-Bakara 2/83, 177, 215; en-Nisâ 4/36; el-İnsân 76/8), haklarının verilmesi istenmiş (el-İsrâ 17/26; er-Rûm 30/38), mahrumiyet içinde bırakılması ve doyurulmasının özendirilmemesi nankörlerin ve cehennemliklerin tutumları arasında zikredilmiş (meselâ bk. el-Hâkka 69/34; el-Müddessir 74/44; el-Fecr 89/18), onlara yardımdan kaçmak için gizlice ürün devşirmeye kalkışanların başına gelen ibretlik felâket anlatılmış (el-Kalem 68/24), büyük bir suç işlemiş olsalar da kendilerine yapılagelen iyiliğin durdurulmasının yanlışlığı belirtilmiş (en-Nûr 24/22), mirasın bölüşülmesinde hazır bulunanlarının bundan nasiplendirilip gönüllerinin alınması tavsiye edilmiştir (en-Nisâ 4/8). Bu âyetlerin Kur’an’ın nüzûl süresinin hemen tamamına yayılmış olmasından toplumun düşkün ve yoksul kesimiyle sürekli ilgilenilmesi gerektiği sonucu çıkarılabilir (ayrıca bk. FAKİR ). İki âyette (el-Bakara 2/61; Âl-i İmrân 3/112) geçen “meskenet” kelimesi -başka yorumlar da bulunmakla birlikte- daha çok horlanma, küçük düşme ve sıkıntı içinde yaşama şeklinde açıklanmıştır. Hadislerde de miskin sözcüğünün âyetlerdekine benzer anlam ve bağlamda sıkça kullanıldığı görülür (Wensinck, el-Muʿcem , “miskîn” md.).
Fitre, nafaka, vakıf, vasiyet, nezir, cizye gibi konularda bazı hak ve sorumlulukların belirlenmesi açısından miskinin tarifi ve meskenet ölçüsünün tesbiti önem taşımakla birlikte özellikle zekâtta hak sahiplerini sayan âyette (et-Tevbe 9/60) fakirlerle miskinlerin beraber anılması iki kelimenin anlamı hakkında geniş tartışmalara yol açmıştır. Bunların aynı anlama geldiğini ileri sürenler olmuşsa da ulemânın büyük çoğunluğu fakirlik ve meskeneti zayıflık/düşkünlük sıfatı bakımından ortak, ancak ya yoksulluk derecesi veya nitelik açısından farklı saymaktadır. Cumhurun üzerinde birleştiği görüşe göre bunların ayırıcı özelliği zayıflık ve ihtiyaç derecesidir; fakat hangisinin daha düşkün olduğunda ihtilâf vardır. Ahmed b. Hanbel, kendisinden nakledilen bir rivayette Şâfiî, İmâmiyye ve Zâhirîler’den İbn Hazm ile Asmaî, Ebû Ca‘fer Ahmed b. Ubeyd gibi dilcilere göre fakir hiçbir şeyi bulunmayan, miskin ise kendisinin ve ailesinin zorunlu ihtiyaçlarını israfa ve cimriliğe kaçmaksızın konumuna uygun düzeyde karşılayacak kadar helâl mala sahip olmayan veya kazanç elde edemeyen, yani geliri giderini kapatmayan kimsedir. Bu görüşü savunanların en önemli delili zekât âyetindeki sıralamada fakirlerin miskinlerden önce anılmasıdır. Ayrıca Kehf sûresinde geçtiği üzere (18/79) miskin gemi edinebilecek kadar varlıklı olabilmekte, Beled sûresinde (90/16) “toza toprağa bulanmış (şiddetli fakru zarûret içinde bulunan) miskin” şeklindeki ifade de -yanına kayıt konmasından anlaşılacağı üzere- bu kelimenin tek başına “hiç maddî imkânı olmayan kimse” anlamına gelmediğini göstermektedir. Buna karşılık Bakara sûresinde (2/273) “kendilerini Allah yoluna adamış fakirler”in dünyalık kazanamadığı belirtilmekte, Haşr sûresindeki (59/8) “yurtlarından ve mallarından uzaklaştırılan fakir muhacirler”in de hiçbir şeyi kalmadığı anlaşılmaktadır (İbn Hazm, VI, 148-149; Ebû Ca‘fer et-Tûsî, I, 246-247; İbn Kudâme, VI, 420-424; Nevevî, VI, 189-197; Şirbînî, III, 108). Ebû Hanîfe, Mâlik ve Şâfiîler’den Ebû İshak el-Mervezî ile Ebû Amr b. Alâ, Yûnus b. Habîb, İbnü’s-Sikkît, İbn Kuteybe, Sa‘leb gibi dilcilere göre ise miskin hiçbir şeyi bulunmayan kimsedir. Bu görüşü desteklemek üzere ileri sürülen başlıca deliller şunlardır: Beled sûresinde geçen niteleme, miskin kelimesinin giysisi bulunmayan veya açlıktan karnına taş bağlamış denecek kadar düşkün olanları da kapsadığını göstermektedir. Yine Bakara sûresinde (2/177) miskinin dilenciden (sâil) ayrı ve önce zikredilmesi ondan yoksul olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Kehf sûresinde (18/79) denizcilerin miskin şeklinde vasıflandırılması ise ellerindeki gemi gasbedildiğinde günübirlik kazanç imkânlarını yitirip muhtaç konuma düşeceklerini ya da onu kira veya âriyet yoluyla işlettiklerini belirtmek içindir. Ayrıca Hz. Ali’den rivayet edilen zayıf bir kıraatte bu kelime “mesâkîn” yerine “messâkîn” (tuzcular) şeklindedir ki bu durumda karşı görüşü savunanları destekleyen delil olmaktan çıkar (Muhammed el-Emîn eş-Şinkītî, s. 328). Kendilerini Allah yoluna adamış fakirlere gelince herhalde silâhsız, teçhizatsız ve azıksız yola çıkmamışlardır (İbn Abdülber en-Nemerî, XVIII, 50-52; Kâsânî, II, 43-44). İki taraf da görüşünü desteklemek üzere gerek hadislerden gerekse Arap şiirinden birçok delil getirmiştir.
Fakirle miskinin yoksulluk yönünden denk olduğunu düşünen âlimler ikisini ayıran nitelikler hususunda ihtilâfa düşünce şu ana görüşler ortaya çıkmıştır: 1. Fakir ihtiyacını gizleyen, miskinse dışa vuran / dilenen muhtaçtır; dolayısıyla miskin fakirden daha zor durumdadır. İbn Abbas, Hasan-ı Basrî, Câbir b. Zeyd, Mücâhid b. Cebr, İbn Şihâb ez-Zührî, Mukātil b. Süleyman ve Ebû Hanîfe’nin benimsediği bu görüş Mâlikîler’den İbn Şa‘bân’ın da tercihidir. 2. Fakir dilenen, miskin dilenmeyen yoksuldur. Ca‘fer es-Sâdık bu kanaattedir (Muhammed b. Mes‘ûd el-Ayyâşî, II, 96). 3. Fakir özürlü/mâlûl, miskinse sağlıklı ihtiyaç sahibidir. Fakirin daha güç durumda olduğunu gösteren bu görüş Katâde b. Diâme’ye aittir. 4. Fakir muhacirlerin, miskin diğerlerinin düşkünüdür. Bu açıklama Dahhâk b. Müzâhim, İbrâhim en-Nehaî ve bir rivayete göre İbn Abbas’tan nakledilmiştir. 5. Fakir müslümanların, miskin Ehl-i kitabın yoksuludur (Ebû Ubeyd Kāsım b. Sellâm, s. 714-715; Taberî, X, 109-111; Tahâvî, V, 28-31; Cessâs, IV, 322-324; Muhammed b. Ahmed el-Ezherî, s. 393-396; Mâverdî, VIII, 487-488; Ebû Bekir İbnü’l-Arabî, II, 961).
Miskin zimmîleri cizyeden muaf tuttuğu anlaşılan Halife Ömer’in zekât âyetindeki fakirleri müslümanların, miskinleri Ehl-i kitabın yoksulları şeklinde açıkladığı rivayet edilir (Ebû Yûsuf, II, 122-123). İkrime el-Berberî ve Züfer b. Hüzeyl’in de bu görüşte olduğu bilinmektedir. Bazı âyetlere dayanarak (el-Bakara 2/272; el-Mümtehine 60/8) müşriklerin miskinlerine tasaddukta bulunulması meşrû sayılmakla birlikte (Ebû Ubeyd Kāsım b. Sellâm, s. 727-728; İbnü’l-Cevzî, I, 327; VIII, 236-237; İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, I, 300-302) zekât verilmesi câiz görülmemiştir. Bu görüşü paylaşan Şâfiîler’e ve Zeydîler’e göre müslüman olmayan miskine infakta bulunulması da câiz değildir (Cemâleddin el-Kāsımî, VI, 352).
Tevbe sûresindeki âyet (9/60) gereği miskinin zekâtta hak sahibi olduğu hususunda ihtilâf yoktur, fakat kendisine zekât verilebilmesi için bazı şartlar aranmaktadır (bk. ZEKÂT ). Enfâl sûresindeki âyete göre (8/41) ganimetin beşte birinden (humus) miskinlere pay ayrılacağı hususunda tartışma yoksa da bunun oranında görüş ayrılığı vardır (bk. GANİMET ; HUMUS ). Yine bazı âyet ve hadislerde çeşitli günahlara kefâret olmak üzere ya gösterilen sıraya veya yükümlünün seçimine göre yapılması gereken eylemler arasında belirli sayıda miskinin doyurulması yahut giydirilmesi de sayılmış (el-Mâide 5/89, 95; el-Mücâdile 58/2-4; Buhârî, “Muḥṣar”, 5, 7, “Ṣavm”, 30-31, “Keffârât”, 1-4; Müslim, “Ṣıyâm”, 81-84, “Ḥac”, 80-86) ve ramazan orucunu tutmaya güç yetiremeyen kimsenin her gün için bir miskini yedirmesi istenmiştir (el-Bakara 2/184; bk. KEFÂRET ).
Câhiliye devri âdetleri arasında yer alan, güçlü zenginlere mahsus “himâ” uygulamasının yasaklanmasına karşılık miskin ve fakirlere kamu arazilerinden himâ tahsisi câiz sayılmıştır. Yine miskinlere vakıfta bulunmanın cevazında görüş ayrılığı yoktur. Bir kimsenin miskinlere tanınan haklardan yararlanması için malının olmadığını ispat etmesi istenemez; çünkü insanın asıl hali muhtaçlıktır. Malının varlığı bilinen kişi bunu yitirdiğini ileri sürerek meskenet statüsünden yararlanmak isterse iddiasını kanıtlamakla yükümlüdür.
İslâm âlimleri çalışamaz durumdaki hasta, yaşlı ve özürlüleri, yeterli geliri bulunmayanları, işsizleri veya çalışsa bile ağır geçim yükü altında ezilenleri sosyal adalet ve güvenlik şemsiyesi altında toplamak istemiştir. Hz. Ömer’in bu anlayışı yansıtan tutumu, ilk dönemlerden itibaren İslâm devletinin miskin gayri müslim vatandaşlarının bile sosyoekonomik güvence altına alındığını göstermektedir.
Birçok İslâm ülkesinde başlıca şehirlerin civarında cüzzamlıların barınacağı “miskinhâne” denilen cüzzamhâneler kurulup hem hastalığın yayılması önlenmiş, hem hastaların ihtiyaçları karşılanarak geri kalan ömürlerini daha rahat geçirmeleri sağlanmıştır. Selçuklular döneminde cüzzamlıların tecrit edilerek bakıldığı, “miskinler tekkesi” de denilen ihtisas hastahaneleri oluşturulmuş, bunlardan Anadolu’da bulunanlar Osmanlılar tarafından son zamanlara kadar işletilmiştir (bk. BÎMÂRİSTAN ; MİSKİNLER TEKKESİ ).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “skn” md.
Wensinck, el-Muʿcem , “miskîn” md.
a.mlf., Miftâḥu künûzi’s-sünne , “miskîn” md.
v. Soden, AHW , II, 684.
a.mlf., The Ancient Orient (trc. D. G. Schley), Michigan 1994, s. 77-78.
L. Koehler – W. Baumgartner, The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (ed. M. E. J. Richardson), Leiden-New York-Köln 1995, II, 605-606.
Buhârî, “Zekât”, 53, “Muḥṣar”, 5, 7, “Ṣavm”, 30-31, “Riḳāḳ”, 16, 51, “Keffârât”, 1-4.
Müslim, “Zekât”, 101-102, “Ṣıyâm”, 81-84, 149, “Ḥac”, 80-86.
Ebû Yûsuf, Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc (Abdülazîz b. Muhammed er-Rahbî, Fıḳhü’l-mülûk içinde, nşr. Ahmed Abîd el-Kübeysî), Bağdad 1975, II, 122-123.
Şâfiî, el-Üm , II, 71-72.
Ebû Ubeyd Kāsım b. Sellâm, Kitâbü’l-Emvâl (nşr. Muhammed İmâre), Beyrut-Kahire 1409/1989, s. 714-715, 727-728.
Taberî, Câmiʿu’l-beyân (Bulak) , X, 109-111.
Tahâvî, Muḫtaṣaru İḫtilâfi’l-ʿulemâʾ (nşr. Abdullah Nezîr Ahmed), Beyrut 1416/1995, V, 28-31.
Cessâs, Aḥkâmü’l-Ḳurʾân (Kamhâvî) , IV, 322-324.
Muhammed b. Ahmed el-Ezherî, ez-Zâhir fî ġarîbi elfâẓi’ş-Şâfiʿî (nşr. Abdülmün‘im Tav‘î Beşennâtî), Beyrut 1419/1998, s. 393-396.
Ebû Hilâl el-Askerî, el-Furûḳ fi’l-luġa , Beyrut 1403/1983, s. 170-171.
Mâverdî, el-Ḥâvi’l-kebîr (nşr. Ali M. Muavvaz – Âdil Ahmed Abdülmevcûd), Beyrut 1414/1994, VIII, 487-492.
İbn Hazm, el-Muḥallâ , VI, 148-149; VII, 219 vd.
Ebû Ca‘fer et-Tûsî, el-Mebsûṭ fî fıḳhi’l-İmâmiyye (nşr. M. Takī el-Keşfî), Tahran 1387, I, 246-247.
İbn Abdülber en-Nemerî, et-Temhîd (nşr. Muhammed et-Tâib es-Saîdî v.dğr.), Mağrib 1402-1407/1982-87, III, 100, 101; IV, 98, 299-300, 302; V, 95-97; XVIII, 48-52.
Ebû Bekir İbnü’l-Arabî, Aḥkâmü’l-Ḳurʾân , II, 961, 971, 973.
Kâsânî, Bedâʾiʿ , II, 43-44; V, 86-87, 101-102.
İbnü’l-Cevzî, Zâdü’l-mesîr , I, 327; II, 413-414, 425-426; III, 455-457; VIII, 236-237.
İbn Kudâme, el-Muġnî , VI, 420-424; VII, 368 vd.
Kurtubî, el-Câmiʿ , VI, 276-279; VIII, 169-171.
Nevevî, el-Mecmûʿ , VI, 189-197.
İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, Aḥkâmü ehli’ẕ-ẕimme (nşr. Subhî es-Sâlih), Beyrut 1983, I, 300-302.
İbnü’l-Murtazâ, el-Baḥrü’z-zeḫḫâr , San‘a 1409/1988, II, 177.
İbnü’l-Hümâm, Fetḥu’l-ḳadîr , II, 261-263.
Ali b. Süleyman el-Merdâvî, el-İnṣâf fî maʿrifeti’r-râciḥ mine’l-ḫilâf (nşr. M. Hâmid el-Fıkī), Beyrut 1406/1986, III, 217-218.
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Şirbînî, Muġni’l-muḥtâc , III, 106-108, 366, 426.
Derdîr, eş-Şerḥu’l-kebîr (Desûkī, Ḥâşiye ʿale’ş-Şerḥi’l-kebîr içinde), [baskı yeri ve tarihi yok] (Dârü’l-fikr), I, 492; II, 690-691.
İbn Âbidîn, Reddü’l-muḥtâr , II, 58-59.
Mustafavî, et-Taḥḳīḳ , V, 189-191.
Seyyid Ali Ekber Kureşî, Ḳāmûs-i Ḳurʾân , Tahran 1367, II, 283-286.
E. A. Speiser, “Muškênum”, Oriental and Biblical Studies: Collected Writings of E. A. Speiser (ed. J. J. Finkelstein – M. Greenberg), Philadelphia 1967, s. 332-343.
Cemâleddin el-Kāsımî, Meḥâsinü’t-teʾvîl (nşr. M. Fuâd Abdülbâkī), Beyrut 1398/1978, VI, 352.
Muhyiddin Atıyye, el-Keşşâfü’l-iḳtiṣâdî li-âyâti’l-Ḳurʾâni’l-Kerîm , Herndon 1412/1991, s. 502-508.
Muhammed b. Mes‘ûd el-Ayyâşî, Tefsîrü’l-ʿAyyâşî (nşr. Hâşim er-Resûlî el-Mahallâtî), Beyrut 1411/1991, II, 96.
Muhammed b. Ömer b. Sâlim Bazmul, Aḥkâmü’l-faḳīr ve’l-miskîn fi’l-Ḳurʾâni’l-ʿaẓîm ve’s-sünneti’l-muṭahhara , Beyrut 1420/1999.
Muhammed el-Emîn eş-Şinkītî, Defʿu îhâmi’l-ıżṭırâb ʿan âyâti’l-Kitâb , Kahire, ts. (Mektebetü İbn Teymiyye), s. 327-329.
“Miskîn”, Mv.F , XXXVII, 297-299.
F. Buhl – [C. E. Bosworth], “Miskīn”, EI2 (İng.) , VII, 144-145.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2005 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 30. cildinde, 183-184 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.