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MİSTİSİZM Skip to content İnsanın görünen nesnelerin ardındaki gerçeklik, sonsuzluk ve birliğe ulaşma yönündeki ruhî tecrübesi ve bu tecrübeyi ifade eden doktrin.
Mistisizm (İng. mysticism; Fr. mysticisme) Grekçe “sır” anlamına gelen musterion kelimesinden türetilmiştir. Kelimenin teknik anlamlar kazanması, eski Yunan’da pagan olan halkın dinî inanışından ayrı olarak Eleusis ve Dionysos kültlerinde temsil edilen sırların musteria terimiyle ifade edilmesi sonucunda olmuştur. Aslında Grek dinî akımlarında söylenmemesi gereken sırlarla ilgili olarak suskun kalması icap eden müntesipler için de mustai kelimesi kullanılırdı. Çünkü Grek mistik dininde sırlar herkese açık olmayıp özel bir intisabı gerektirmekteydi. Nitekim Grekçe’de “susmak, suskun kalmak” mânasındaki muein kelimesinin de Grek mistik ibadet şekillerinde intisap törenlerinin gizliliğine işaret ettiği düşünülmektedir (ER , X, 230, 245-246). Zaman ve tarih içinde gelişenden ezelî ve zamansız olana geçiş tecrübesini ifade eden mistisizmin anlamı daha sonra genişlemiş, bu terim Grek ve Doğu felsefelerinin Yeni Eflâtunculuk adı altında uzlaştırılması çabasının ardından değişikliğe uğrayarak “bütün bir hakikat problemine aklî ve daha çok sezgiye dayalı melekelerle özel biçimde yaklaşmak” mânasına gelmeye başlamıştır. Hıristiyanlığın erken dönemlerinde Yeni Eflâtunculuğun hıristiyanî fikirlerle kaynaşması sonucu -Dionysius the Areopagite’in Mistik Teoloji adlı eserinde görüldüğü gibi- mistik bir hıristiyan ilâhiyatı ortaya çıkmıştır. Fakat mistisizm, “görünenin ötesine veya görünmez olana geçme tecrübesi” şeklindeki genel anlamıyla belli bir dine özgü olmayıp bütün dinlerde rastlanan bir olgudur (Sunar, s. 4; Happold, s. 18-19).
Halk inanışlarında ruhçuluk, durugörü (clairvoyance), hipnotizma, gizli ilimler ve büyü ile karıştırılan mistisizm, bazılarınca nevrasteni ve diğer marazî şartların sonucu olan müphem psikolojik durum ve olaylar biçiminde nitelendirilmekte, bazıları ise mistik olmayı “dinin dogmalarına ve zâhirî mânalara riayet etmemek” şeklinde anlamaktadır (Happold, s. 36). Zaman zaman meskalin, liserjik asit veya alkol alanlarda meydana gelen anormal zihnî durumlar için de mistik dendiği görülmektedir; ancak bu durumların temel bir akım olarak mistisizmle ilgileri bir hayli uzaktır ve ihmal edilebilir düzeydedir (The Encyclopedia of Philosophy , V, 420).
Mistisizm, dinî tecrübenin tarihte çok öne çıkan bir biçimi olup çeşitli doktrinlerin terimleriyle ifade edildiği ve tek bir doktrinden söz edilemediği için basit olarak tanımlanması oldukça güçtür. Ortaçağ teologları mistik teolojiyi “tecrübî hikmet, aşkın yönlendirmeyle ruhun Tanrı’ya doğru teveccühü; ilâhî aşk sayesinde ulaşılan tecrübî bilgi” şeklinde tanımlamıştır. Alman şairi Goethe’nin tanımı ise “kalbin skolastiği, duyguların diyalektiği” biçimindedir. Bazıları da mistik tecrübeyi aklî etkinlikle ilişkilendirmektedir. Meselâ Hint filozofu Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan bu aklî niteliğe vurgu yapmış ve mistisizmi, analitik düşünceye karşılık “eşyayı anlamlı bir bütün içinde bir araya getiren bütünleşmiş düşünce” olarak tanımlamıştır. Mistisizmin ünlü uzmanlarından Evelyn Underhill’in tarifi ise “Hak ile birleşme sanatı” biçimindedir (Happold, s. 37-38). W. R. Inge, Mysticism in Religion adlı eserinde (London 1907) mistisizm hakkında yapılmış “ben’in Tanrı ile bir olduğunu doğrudan hissetmesi” (Otto Pfleiderer), “ruhun Tanrı ile ilişkisinde bütün nisbetlerin ortadan kalktığı zihnî tutum” (Edward Caird), “tecrübe edilen her şeyin aslında bir şeyle, yani bir varlığın yahut başka bir şeyin sembolüyle ilgili olduğunun bilincine ulaşma” (Richard Nettleship) şeklinde çeşitli tanımlamaları vermektedir (The Encyclopedia of Philosophy , V, 420). Bunların yanı sıra ünlü filozoflar üzerindeki etkisine dikkat çekmekle birlikte mistisizmin öznel olduğu ve dış dünya hakkında hiçbir nesnel doğru sağlamayacağı görüşünde olan Bertrand Russel’a göre mistisizm, evrenle ilgili inançlar üzerindeki belli bir duygu derinliği ve yoğunluğundan başka bir şey değildir (Mistisizm ve Mantık , s. 7).
Mistik tecrübenin en karakteristik yönü mistiklerin Tanrı ile vasıtasız bir temas kurduğu iddiasında kendini göstermektedir. Söz konusu temas, tipik biçimde sık sık vizyon görme ve bir olma tabirleriyle ifade edilen bir bilgi biçimine işaret etmektedir. Hinduizm, Budizm, Taoizm, Konfüçyanizm gibi Doğu dinleri, Grek-Helenistik mistik dinleri ve felsefeleri, Yahudilik, Hıristiyanlık ve İslâm gibi semavî dinlerle ilgili araştırmalar neticesinde ulaşılan sonuç, bütün büyük dünya dinlerinde mistisizmin ifade ediliş biçimleri arasında bir hayli fark bulunduğu, ancak aynı zamanda tecrübe ve anlayışta belirgin şekilde birlik görüldüğüdür. Buna göre farklı dünya dinlerindeki mistik tecrübelerin mutlak hakikat, ilâhî varlığın içkinlik ve aşkınlığı, benliğin Tanrı ile bir olması, evrendeki kötülüğün mahiyeti ve mânevî yetkinliği ifade eden kavramlarla ilgili göz ardı edilmez ortak yanları bulunduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Ancak bu tesbit, dünyadaki bütün mistik doktrinlerin birbirinin tamamen aynı olan kavramsal yapılar içerdiği anlamına gelmemektedir. Meselâ mutlak hakikat tecrübesiyle ilgili olarak bazı mistikler şahsî tanrı terimleriyle konuşurken bazıları Brahman, boşluk, Nirvana, bir, iyi gibi gayri şahsî bir gerçek varlıktan söz etmektedir.
Bütün mistiklere göre mutlak hakikatin varlığı aşkındır; fakat aynı zamanda mutlak hakikat zaman ve mekânda bulunan bütün bir evrenin esasen tek olan iç ve zatî varlığıdır. Bu, ilk bakışta bir panteizm izlenimi uyandırsa da mutlak hakikatle evren arasında tam bir ontolojik özdeşlik olduğu anlamına gelmez. Bütün mistik ekollerde insanın, ruhunda mevcut daha derin ve üstün bir idrakle tabiatının normal sınırlarını aşarak Tanrı ile bir olabileceği, yücelebileceği, tanrısallaşabileceği veya Nirvana’ya ulaşabileceği vurgulanır. Buna göre insanda iki “ben” vardır. Bunlardan süflî ve egoist olanı söz konusu tecrübeyi mümkün kılma yolunda bir engeldir ve aşılmalıdır. Farklı geleneklerde farklı terimlerle anılan ulvî ben ise süflî âlemdeki yaşantıların ürettiği hayalî benden ayrı olarak evrenin iç yüzündeki birliği kavrama ve mutlak varlıkla bir olma istidadındaki derinlerde olan bendir. Mistiklerin birleştiği hususlardan biri de kötülüğün kaynağının fizik ve duyulur dünyanın gerçeği hakkındaki bilgisizliğin olduğudur. Bu görüşe paralel olarak mistikler ruhu gerçek yolundan alıkoyan, onu süflî benin ya da dünyevî hayatın hâkimiyeti altına sokan ve Tanrı’dan ayıran bütün niteliklerden arınma fikri konusunda da birleşmektedir. Genellikle mistisizme göre insanın yeryüzündeki varlığının başlıca amacı kendi gerçek varlığını keşfetmek ve onunla aynîleşmektir. Böylece insan ilâhî cevherin bilgisine erişecek, hakikati sınırlı beşerî idrak vasıtalarıyla değil nasılsa öyle tanıyacak ve ezelî hayat, kurtuluş, aydınlanma gibi çeşitli isimlerle anılan var oluş durumlarına erişecektir. Bu evrensel görünümüyle mistisizm sadece dünyanın her yerinde, her çağda ve her dinde var olmakla kalmaz, aynı zamanda mistik bilincin bulunduğu her yerde ya birbirinin aynı veya benzeri formlarda kendini gösterir. Bu sebeple mistisizm bazan ezelî felsefe (perennial philosophy) şeklinde de isimlendirilir (Spencer, s. 20, 326-336; Sunar, s. 9, 52-53, 128).
Bir tecrübe ve doktrin olarak mistisizm başlıca iki türe ayrılarak incelenmektedir. Frederick Crossfield Happold’a göre mistisizm aşk ve ittihat mistisizmi, bilgi ve idrak mistisizmi diye ikiye ayrılabilir. Farklılık hangisinin ağır bastığıyla ilgilidir. Aynı şekilde mistisizm tabiat mistisizmi, ruh mistisizmi ve Tanrı mistisizmi şeklinde de ele alınmıştır. Bu ayırım mistisizmin çeşitli yönleri olduğunu göstermesi bakımından anlamlıdır. Fakat mistisizmin bu yönleri birbirini dışlamamakta, hatta onların sık sık birbiri içine girdiği de görülmektedir. Ayrıca saf anlamda ruh mistisizmi hariç tutulduğunda mistik tecrübenin bazı çeşitleri olduğu da anlaşılmaktadır. Bunlar mistisizmin her şeyin farklılaşmamış, mutlak “bir”de ve bu “bir”in her şeyde olduğunu ileri sürmek anlamında “panenhenik”, her şeyin Tanrı’da ve Tanrı’nın her şeyde olduğunu kabul etmek mânasında “panenteistik”, ulûhiyyetin ya da ilâhî olanın yaratılmışlarda ihtiva edildiğini veya evrende Tanrı olmayan hiçbir şeyin bulunmadığını iddia etmek anlamında “panteistik” kavramlarıyla ifade edilmektedir. Bu kavramlar açısından bakıldığında tabiat mistisizmi birin ya da Tanrı’nın tabiatta içkin olduğunu ileri sürer. Saf anlamda ruh mistisizminde ise ifade edilebilir bir Tanrı’nın varlığı fikri mevcut değildir. Gizli ve gizemli olan ruh bu mistisizmde yaratılmamış olup tabiat ya da Tanrı ile birleşmez. Fakat kendisi olmayan her şeyden soyutlanmaya yönelir. Bu mistisizmde insanın temel gayesi kendisi olmak ve kendisini bilmektir. Hindu ve Budist mistisizmlerinde rastlanan bu tür anlayışların Batılı zihniyet dünyasında kavranması zordur. VIII. yüzyılda yaşamış Sri Şankaraşarya’nın ve Meister Eckhardt’ın öğretileri Tanrı mistisizminde birleşmektedir. Çünkü her ikisinde de ulûhiyyetle birleşme suretiyle ruhun kendini bulması ve bilmesi söz konusudur. Tanrı mistisizminde ise daima rastlanan ana fikir ruhun ölümsüz ve sonsuz cevherine yani Tanrı’ya dönüşüdür (Sunar, s. 126-128; Happold, s. 40, 43-45).
Mistik tecrübenin ayrıca dışa dönük ve içe dönük şeklinde anılan çeşitleri olduğu öne sürülmektedir. Dışa dönük mistisizm dış dünyadaki çokluğu bir olarak görmek, duyuların çokluk diye algıladığı varlıkların gerçekte derin bir birlik içinde olduğunu dolaysız biçimde anlamaktır. Burada söz konusu olan birlik parçaların bütüne işaret ettiği bir birlik fikri değildir. Her şeyin bir olduğu yönündeki mistik tecrübe bundan dolayı paradoksal bir anlatıma sahiptir; ancak söz konusu olan eşyanın ardındaki birliktir. Eşyanın bu özde birliği, tek tek nesneler kendileri olmaktan hiçbir şey kaybetmeksizin mistik tarafından doğrudan doğruya algılanır ve bu algıyı dışa dönük kılan, çokluğun aslında bir olduğunun dış dünyaya yönelik duyu güçleriyle algılanması ve referanslarının dış dünyada bulunmasıdır. Bu farklılaşmamış birlik tecrübesi aynı zamanda hiçbir şeyin ölü olmadığını, her şeyin özündeki birlikte tek bir hayatın ya da bilincin bulunduğunu görmek demektir (Stace, s. 61-69, 78-79; Zaehner bu tecrübeyi tabiat mistisizmi çerçevesinde almış ve “panenhenik” olarak isimlendirmiştir; Zaehner’e göre bu tür tecrübede insan zaman ve mekânı aşarak tabiatla uyumlu bir bütünleşmeye girmektedir; bk. Mysticism, Sacred and Profane , s. 50, 101, 118, 180; ayrıca bk. Sunar, s. 126-127). İçe dönük mistisizm ise mistiğin duyu imajları, soyut düşünceler, akıl yürütme süreçleri ve bu süreçlerde oluşan arzular gibi zihnî muhtevadan tamamen boşaldığını ve -beklenebileceği gibi bilinç dışına kaymak yerine- saf bir bilinç durumuna ulaştığını tecrübe etmesidir. Söz konusu bilinç durumu tecrübe edilmiş bir muhtevaya ait değildir, yani bilincin kendisi dışında hiçbir muhtevası bulunmamaktadır. Bilincin tecrübî muhtevası boşaldığında geriye bir boşluk değil bilincin kendisi kalmaktadır. Bazı mistiklerin Tanrı ile birleşme olarak ifade ettikleri tecrübe de esas itibariyle içe dönük mistik tecrübeden ibarettir. Tanrı ile birleşme Tanrı ile mutlak anlamda özdeş olma anlamına gelmeyip ferdî benin sonsuz bende çözülüşünü gösterir (Sunar, s. 7, 122-123; Stace, s. 84-90, 96-103, 110-117). Mistik tecrübenin dinî tecrübeyle ilişkisi, mistik tecrübelerin çeşitleri ve kendini ifade biçimleri üzerine yapılan teorik açıklamaların az veya çok farklılık gösterdiği bir gerçektir (Almond, s. 120-124, 128, 163-168, 183; L. Carmody – T. Carmody, s. 6-10).
Mistisizmi tecrübe ve doktrin olarak mukayeseli biçimde inceleyen birçok Batılı müellif çalışmalarında “Islamic mysticism, muslim mysticism, sufism” gibi terimlerle ifade ettikleri İslâm tasavvufunu da bu genel çerçeve içinde değerlendirmiştir (bk. bibl.). Bunun yanı sıra Batı dillerinde mistisizm terimi kullanılarak doğrudan doğruya İslâm tasavvufu hakkında çok sayıda çalışma yapılmıştır. Bunlardan Reynold Alleyne Nicholson’un Studies in Islamic Mysticism (Cambridge 1921) ve The Mystics of Islam (London 1963), Arthur John Arberry’nin Sufism: An Account of the Mystics of Islam (London 1950), Louis Massignon’un Recueil des textes inédits concernant l’histoire de la mystique en pays d’Islam (Paris 1929) ve Essai sur les origines de lexique technique de la mystique musulmane (Paris 1954), Annemarie Schimmel’in Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapel Hill 1975), Julian Baldick’in Mystical Islam: An Introduction to Sufism (New York 1989) ve Toshihiko Izutsu’nun Creation and the Timeless Order of Things: Essays in Islamic Mystical Philosophy (Ashland 1994) adlı eserleri belli başlı örnekler olarak sayılabilir. İslâm mistisizmi hakkında özellikle şarkiyatçı bakış açısına sahip olanlar, tasavvufun İslâm dışı kaynaklardan etkilendiği şeklindeki açıklamaları sık sık gündeme getirmişlerdir. Ancak mesele şarkiyatçılar açısından tam bir sonuca ulaştırılamamış, var sayılan dış kaynağın Hıristiyanlık, gnostisizm, Fars ve Hint mistisizmi yahut Yeni Eflâtunculuk’tan hangisinin olduğu konusunda bir uzlaşma sağlanamamıştır (Nicholson, s. 49-54). Kendi geleneksel temsilcileri açısından ise İslâm tasavvufu tamamen nebevî kaynağa bağlanmaktadır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
R. C. Zaehner, Mysticism, Sacred and Profane , London 1961, s. 15, 22, 33, 50, 84-87, 101, 118, 148-149, 156-168, 180, 187-188, 205-206, ayrıca bk. tür.yer.
S. Spencer, Mysticism in World Religion , Baltimore 1963, s. 9, 20, 299-325, 326-336.
Cavit Sunar, Mistisizmin Ana Hatları , Ankara 1966, s. 2-4, 7, 9, 52-53, 103-104, 122-123, 126-128.
B. Russel, Mistisizm ve Mantık (trc. Ayseli Uluata), İstanbul 1972, s. 5-20.
F. C. Happold, Mysticism, A Study and an Anthology , London 1977, s. 18-20, 36-38, 40, 43-45, 249-263.
Philip C. Almond, Mystical Experience and Religious Doctrine , Berlin-New York 1982, s. 120-124, 128, 163-168, 183.
D. L. Carmody – J. T. Carmody, Mysticism, Holiness East and West , Oxford-New York 1996, s. 6-10, 226-271.
H. Smith – D. R. Griffin, Unutulan Hakikat (trc. Latif Boyacı), İstanbul 1998, s. 103-105.
Seyyid Hüseyin Nasr, Bilgi ve Kutsal (trc. Yusuf Yazar), İstanbul 1999, s. 75-102, 141-169.
a.mlf., Tasavvufî Makaleler (trc. Sadık Kılıç), İstanbul 2002, s. 28-29, 210-211.
R. A. Nicholson, Tasavvufun Menşei Problemi (trc. Abdullah Kartal), İstanbul 2004, s. 49-54.
W. T. Stace, Mistisizm ve Felsefe (trc. Abdullatif Tüzer), İstanbul 2004, s. 27, 55, 61-124, 236.
Ninian Smart, “Mysticism, History of”, The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (ed. P. Edwards), New York-London 1972, V, 419-429.
Ronald W. Hepburn, “Mysticism, Nature and Assessment of”, a.e. , V, 429-434.
Kurt Rudolf, “Mystery Religion”, ER , X, 230-239.
Louis Dupré, “Mysticism”, a.e. , X, 245-261.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2005 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 30. cildinde, 188-190 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.