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MUAMELE Skip to content Hukukî bir sonuca yönelik irade beyanı.
Sözlükte “iş, çaba, çalışma” anlamındaki amel kökünden türetilen muâmele “karşılıklı etkileşim sağlayan işlem” demektir. Sosyal ilişkiler bağlamında muamele kelimesi başkalarına karşı gösterilen davranış biçimini belirtmek için kullanılır. Hukuk alanında başına “hukukî” sıfatı getirildiğinde hukukî sonuç doğurmaya yönelik irade beyanını ifade eder. Fıkıh literatüründe yer yer aynı mânaya gelmek üzere yalnız muamele kelimesine yer verilse de (Karâfî, el-Furûḳ, III, 226-227) hukukî muameleyi belirten temel kelime “tasarruf”tur. Fakat bu, çok defa hukuka aykırı fiilleri de içine alacak bir üst kavram şeklinde kullanıldığından hukukî muameleyi tam olarak “et-tasarrufü’l-kavlî” terkibi karşılar (Kâsânî, VII, 170-171; Nevevî, IX, 159; Subhî Mahmesânî, I, 33; II, 7-8).
Hukukî muamelenin temel unsuru irade beyanıdır, fakat her irade beyanı hukukî muamele değildir. Bir irade beyanının hukukî muamele sayılması için hukukî bir sonuca yönelik olması gerekir. Hukukî sonuçtan maksat kişinin mal varlığı veya şahıs varlığı haklarından birini etkilemesidir. Hukukî sonuç doğurmaya yönelik irade açıklamasının hukuken muteber olması iki temel şartı taşımasına bağlıdır. Bunlardan biri işlemi yapanın o işlem için yeterli ehliyete sahip bulunmasıdır ki buna muamele ehliyeti denir ve edâ ehliyetinin bir yönünü oluşturur. Diğer şart ise işlemi yapanın o işleme konu olacak hak üzerinde işlem yapma yetkisini taşımasıdır ki buna da muamele yetkisi veya tasarruf yetkisi adı verilir. Kişi, ya söz konusu hakkın sahibi olduğu için ya da bizzat hak sahibi tarafından (vekâlet) veya kanun tarafından (velâyet ve vesâyet) yetkili kılındığı için tasarruf yetkisini elde eder. Hak sahibi kişi edâ ehliyetini taşıdığı halde iflâs, terekenin üçte birini aşan vasiyet gibi durumlarda üçüncü şahısların haklarını koruma düşüncesiyle tasarruf yetkisinden mahrum kalabilir. Bu şartlarda yapılan bir muamele mevkuf sayılır; geçerliliği hak sahiplerinin muvafakatine bağlıdır (ayrıca bk. İCÂZET; İZİN; MEVKUF).
Hukukî muameleler taraf sayısı, muhataba yöneltilmesi gerekip gerekmediği, etkisini hayatta veya ölüm sonrasında göstermesi gibi açılardan taksim edilmiştir. İki tarafın karşılıklı irade beyanına muhtaç olanlarına iki taraflı hukukî muamele ve daha özel olarak akid adı verilir. Akidler de değişik bakımlardan çeşitli gruplara ayrılır (bk. AKİD). Bazı hukukî muameleler ise tek taraflı irade ile meydana gelir; bunlar mahiyetleri bakımından inşâî nitelikte olanlar ve olmayanlar şeklinde iki gruptur. Vakıf kurma, boşama, şüf‘a hakkından feragat gibi bir hakkın kurulması, sona erdirilmesi veya düşürülmesine yönelik irade açıklamaları inşâî nitelikte muamelelerdir. Bazı fakihler, tek taraflı irade ile meydana gelen bu tür hukukî muameleler için de akid terimini kullanır. Bir hakkın kurulması, sona erdirilmesi veya düşürülmesine yönelik olmamakla birlikte kendisine birtakım hukukî sonuçların bağlandığı dava, ikrar, inkâr, davacının iddiasını düşürmek amacıyla yemin gibi irade açıklamaları ise inşâî olmayan muamelelerdir (Mustafa Ahmed ez-Zerkā, I, 288-291). Geçerliliği için muhataba yöneltilmesi gerekip gerekmediğine göre de muameleler tasnif edilir. Ekseri muameleler yöneltilmesi gereken grubuna girerken meselâ cuâle (mükâfat vaadi) gibi bazıları bu türden değildir. Hukukî etkisini ilgililerin hayatında göstermek üzere yapılanlara sağlar arası hukukî muamele, vasiyet gibi etkisini ölümden sonra gösterenlere de ölüme bağlı hukukî muamele denir.
Mâmeleke doğrudan tesiri açısından da hukukî muameleler ayırıma tâbi tutulur. Mâmelekin aktifine dokunmaksızın sadece pasifini arttırana iltizamî muamele, mâmelekin aktifini doğrudan azaltanına da tasarruf muamelesi adı verilir. Muamelelerin iltizamî-tasarruf şeklindeki ayırımı her hukuk sistemi için aynı derecede önemli değildir. Mâmelekle ilgili bir diğer muamele türü ise kazandırıcı muameledir. Bu muamelenin etkisi karşı tarafın mâmelekinin aktifinde doğrudan artış meydana getirmesidir. Kazandırıcı muamele ivazlı ve ivazsız olabilir. İvazsız olanı bir teberru muamelesi niteliğindedir. İvazlı olanı da ya bir borcun ifası ya da karşı tarafı borç altına sokma sonucunu doğurur. Bu üç sebepten yoksun bir kazandırma işlemi sebepsiz zenginleşme (haksız iktisap) adıyla yeni bir borç kaynağı oluşturur.
Klasik fıkıh literatüründe hukukî muameleler için işlevleri açısından temlîkât, ıtlâkāt, ıskātât gibi sınıflandırmalar yapılır. Buna göre mülkiyetin naklini sağlayan muamele temlik, yetki devri sağlayan muamele ıtlak, hak kaybına yol açanı ıskat olarak nitelenir. Temlîkât türünden işlemlerin başlıcaları satım, fuzûlînin yaptığı satıma icâzet, satım akdinin feshi, müşterek mülkiyetin taksimi, hibe, mal karşılığı sulhtür. Itlak türünden işlemlere vekâlet; ıskat türünden işlemlere ise ibrâ, talâk, kısas hakkından vazgeçme, şüf‘a hakkından feragat örnekleri verilebilir. Bu nitelemelerle ilgili görüş ayrılıkları bulunduğu gibi bir hukukî muameleye bazan belirtilen özelliklerden sadece biri, bazan da ikisi birden hâkim olabilir. Nitekim talâk, âzat, mudârebe ve vekâlet gibi işlemlere hem ıtlak hem ıskat karakteri hâkimdir. Bu nitelemelerin yapıldığı yerlerde ayrıca her birine ait özel hükümlerden de söz edilir. Meselâ temlik işlemi, kendisine mülkiyet geçirilmek istenen tarafın bunu kabul etmemesi durumunda etkisiz kalır. Bir anlamda temlikin geçerliliği için muhatabın kabulü şart değilse bile en azından onun reddetmemiş olması gerekir (Kâsânî, V, 172). Halbuki ıskat türünden bir işlemde karşı tarafın kabulünün veya reddinin bir etkisi yoktur (Serahsî, VII, 63; XIII, 84; XIV, 113; XX, 141). Iskat türünden işlemlerde ribâ cereyan etmez ve bunların gelecekte vukuu belirsiz bir şarta ta‘liki de mümkündür. Temlik türünden işlemlerde ise bu mümkün değildir (Osman b. Ali ez-Zeylaî, IV, 131). Yine ıskat türünden işlemlerin sıhhatine cehalet tesir etmez (Kâsânî, V, 173; ayrıca bk. TASARRUF).
Muamele kavramının yukarıda açıklanan anlamı dışında iki ayrı özel kullanımı daha vardır. Bunlardan biri Hz. Peygamber’in Hayber halkıyla yaptığı anlaşma tipiyle ilgilidir. Şöyle ki: Resûl-i Ekrem, Hayber’i 7 (628) yılında fethettiğinde Tevrat’taki ağır hükmü uygulamayıp önce şehir halkına memleketlerini terketme izni verir, daha sonra da elde ettikleri yıllık hurmanın yarısı karşılığında yerlerinde bırakır. Ertesi yıl henüz hasat zamanı gelmeden Abdullah b. Revâha o yılki ürün miktarını tesbit için oraya gider, tahmin ettiği miktarın yarısını almak veya vermek üzere onlara muhayyerlik tanır (el-Muvaṭṭaʾ, “Müsâḳāt”, 1; Buhârî, “İcâre”, 3, “Meġāzî”, 40, “Ḥars̱ ve’l-müzâraʿa”, 14; İbn Mâce, “Rühûn”, 14; Ebû Dâvûd, “İmâre”, 24). Gerek hadis gerek fıkıh literatüründe muamele diye de adlandırılan bu anlaşma, nitelik itibariyle bir kamu hukuku sözleşmesi olmakla birlikte (ayrıca bk. HARAÇ) özel hukuk alanında yapılan meyve (müsâkāt), ziraat (müzâraa) ve kâr (mudârebe / kırâz) ortaklığı akidleri için de esas alınacak örnek bir uygulama işlevi görmüştür. Nitekim Şâfiî, “mudârebe” anlamında kullandığı mukāraza / kırâz akdinin meşruiyetini bu muamele ile temellendirir (el-Üm, IV, 13). Bir meyve bahçesinin başta sulanma olmak üzere yıl boyunca gerekli bakımının yapılması karşılığında elde edilecek yıllık ürünün eşit olarak paylaşılması esasına dayanan bu anlaşma için bazı yörelerde muamele terimi kullanılmışsa da müsâkāt daha çok revaç bulmuştur.
Faiz yasağını aşma amaçlı bir uygulamayı ifade etmek için de muamele kavramı kullanılır. Osmanlı döneminde özellikle para vakıflarına ait paraların, karz verenin alacağını her an talep edebilmesi hükmüne takılmadan ve faiz yasağını açıktan ihlâl etmeden belli oranda bir fazlalıkla ödünç verilmesine imkân sağlamak üzere fıkıh literatüründe “îne satışı” olarak da bilinen bir formülden yararlanma yoluna gidilmiştir. Buna göre önce vakıf, borç vereceği kişinin sembolik değere sahip bir malını kredi vereceği para kadar bir bedel karşılığında peşin olarak satın alır; hemen ardından bu mal, vakıf tarafından belli bir yüzde eklenmiş bedelle vadeli olarak aynı kişiye satılır. Bu formül aynı sonucu verecek şekilde kendi içinde başka türlü de düzenlenebilir. Meselâ vakfa ait sembolik değere sahip bir mal önce vadeli işlemle satılır, ardından daha düşük bedelle peşin olarak geri alınır. Muâmele-i şer‘iyye veya kısaca muamele adı verilen bu işlemle bir yandan karzdaki vade belirsizliği sorunu aşılmış, öte yandan kredi ihtiyaçları vakıflara belli bir gelir sağlayacak şekilde karşılanmış oluyordu (ayrıca bk. ÎNE).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA el-Muvaṭṭaʾ, “Müsâḳāt”, 1; Buhârî, “İcâre”, 3, “Meġāzî”, 40, “Ḥars̱ ve’l-müzâraʿa”, 14; İbn Mâce, “Rühûn”, 14; Ebû Dâvûd, “İmâre”, 24; Şâfiî, el-Üm , Beyrut, ts. (Dârü’l-ma‘rife), IV, 13; Serahsî, el-Mebsûṭ, VII, 63; XIII, 84; XIV, 113; XX, 141; Kâsânî, Bedâʾiʿ, V, 172-173; VII, 170-171, 173; Nevevî, el-Mecmûʿ, IX, 159; Karâfî, el-Furûḳ, Kahire 1347, III, 226-227; a.mlf., eẕ-Ẕaḫîre (nşr. Muhammed Haccî), Beyrut 1994, I, 159-161; Osman b. Ali ez-Zeylaî, Tebyînü’l-ḥaḳāʾiḳ, Bulak 1314, IV, 131; Andreas B. Schwarz, Medeni Hukuka Giriş (trc. Hıfzı Veldet), İstanbul 1942, s. 143; Subhî Mahmesânî, en-Naẓariyyetü’l-ʿâmme li’l-mûcebât ve’l-ʿuḳūd, Beyrut 1948, I, 33; II, 7-8; Mustafa Ahmed ez-Zerkā, el-Fıḳhü’l-İslâmî fî s̱evbihi’l-cedîd, Dımaşk 1967, I, 288-291; Necmettin Feyzioğlu, Borçlar Hukuku, İstanbul 1976, I, 32-46; Aytekin Ataay, Medeni Hukuka Giriş, İstanbul 1980, s. 317; Selâhattin Sulhi Tekinay, Borçlar Hukuku: Genel Hükümler (haz. Sermet Akman v.dğr.), İstanbul 1988, s. 44-65; Süleyman Kaya, XVIII. Yüzyıl Osmanlı Toplumunda Kredi (yüksek lisans tezi, 2003), MÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, s. 10-11, 15-16; “Ecel”, Mv.F, II, 30-31.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2005 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 30. cildinde, 319-320 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.