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MUKARNAS Skip to content İslâm mimarisinde uygulanan bir geçiş unsuru.
Mukarnes imlâsıyla da yazılan mukarnas kelimesi son döneme ait Arapça, Farsça ve Osmanlıca sözlüklerde “kademeli çıkıntıları olan basamaklı çatma tavan; kubbe; bir başlık türü; rengârenk alacalı işleme” gibi anlamlarla karşılanmakta, buna mukabil klasik sözlüklerde yer almamaktadır. Redhouse ’ta halk arasında kullanılmayan ilmî bir tabir olduğu belirtilen kelimenin Grekçe korônis (korniş) kelimesinden Arapçalaştırılarak türetilmiş olduğu kabul edilmektedir (İA, VIII, 564; EI2 [İng.], VII, 501). Ancak The Encyclopaedia of Islam’da ileri sürülen, kelimenin bir halk tabiri olabileceği görüşü Batı dillerinden türetildiği kabulü ile çelişir ve esasen kelime halk arasında kullanılmamaktadır. Bu durumda mukarnasın, Batılılaşma hareketinin başlarında Batı dillerine ait ilmî terimlerin İslâmî terminolojiye çevrilmesi çalışmaları sırasında ve özellikle mimarinin “Jugendstil / art nouveau” tarzının etkisinde kaldığı dönemde Almanca karniesten türetilmiş olduğu düşünülebilir. Ayrıca kelimeyi türeten mimarın bunu Arapça’da bir benzerinin bulunduğunu bilmeden yaptığı da söylenebilir. Çünkü klasik Arapça sözlüklerde Osmanlılar’ın da İranlılar’ın da kullanmadıkları, dolayısıyla sözlüklerine almadıkları, eskiden beri bilinen başka bir mukarnes/mukarnas kelimesi daha bulunmakta (Lane, VII, 2519) ve “av şahini/atmacası” anlamına gelmektedir (kelimenin kökeni konusunda ileri sürülmüş farklı görüşler için bk. SA, II, 965).
Petekler dizisi ya da hücreler halinde istiflenmiş görüntü veren mukarnas, bulunduğu yerde hem taşıyıcı hem süsleyici işlev gördüğünden statik ve plastik görevleri birlikte üstlenerek diğer formlara göre çok farklı bir özellik taşır. Mukarnas, geometrik bir tasarımın üçüncü boyuta aktarılmış bir uygulaması olduğu için ışık-gölge oyunlarıyla soyut anlamlara açılabilen, bu sebeple de görünüş olarak müslüman sanatçının tasvirden uzak duran anlayışına cevap veren bir buluştur. Düz yüzeylerde olduğu kadar taçkapı ve mihrap kavsaralarında sıkça karşılaşılan bu unsur, mimari bünyeye bağlı biçimde yapım sırasındaki teknolojik süreçten doğduğu gibi ahşap ya da alçı malzemenin oyularak şekillendirilmesiyle de bütün içinden ortaya çıkabilir. Her durumda kullanıldığı yere göre genel üslûba katılımı oldukça zengindir.
Mukarnasın boyut değiştirme imkânları çok yönlü olduğundan yalın diziler halinde ilerleyen üçgen ya da prizmatik formlardan teşekkül ettiği gibi içi motif dolgulu hücreler halinde farklı doğrultularda yayılan, hatta bazı türlerinde damla şeklinde sarkıtlar yaparak plastik etkisi arttırılmış örnekleri de vardır. Mukarnas işçiliği, denediği çeşitlemelere göre pek çok durumda üzerinde yer aldığı yapıyı tarihlendiren ya da ülkelere göre yapıya kimlik veren özellikler sunar. Mimaride konsol ya da kemer gibi unsurlara göre taşıyıcı ve görsel işlevleri üstlenmekle birlikte yatay ve düşey doğrultuda zengin imkânlarla üretilebilen, özellikle içbükey dönüşlerde, kubbelerin iç yüzeylerinde, sütun başlıklarını kavrayan konumlarda kolayca uygulanabilmesi, kısacası bir yüzeyden ötekine geçerken sağladığı akışkan doku üstünlüğü mukarnasa bir kullanım rahatlığı getirmiş, geçiş ve dönüş işlevlerini rahatça sağlaması yanında ahşap, tuğla, taş, çini gibi çeşitli malzemeyle üretilebildiği için Orta Asya’dan Endülüs’e kadar genişleyen bir kültür coğrafyasında uzun süre müslüman mimarlara teknolojik bir üstünlük sağlamıştır.
Mukarnasın daha çok İslâm mimarisinde yaygınlık kazanmış olması bu unsurun sadece teknolojik bir çözüme cevap vermediğini, fakat inançlarla örtüşen soyut çağrışımlara da açık bir biçimlenme olduğunu göstermektedir. Doğadaki hiçbir şekle tam olarak benzemeyen, gölge-ışık etkileriyle çağrışım unsurları ortaya koyan mukarnas, İslâm estetiği bağlamında tam anlamıyla zenginleştirici (tezyinî) bir unsurdur. Böylesine güçlü bir etkiyle mimariye katılan bu unsurun kaynağı kesin olarak bilinmemektedir. İlk örnekler konusu tartışmalıdır.
Mukarnasın V. (XI.) yüzyılda Mısır’da ortaya çıktığı, bilinen ilk örneğin Kahire’de 478 (1085) tarihli Cüyûşî Camii’ndeki (Bedr el-Cemâlî Meşhedi) minarede görüldüğü ileri sürülür. Buna göre kırk yıl sonra aynı şehirdeki Akmer Camii’nin cephesinde, niş dolgularında ve köşe elemanlarında tekrarlanmaktadır. Her iki örneğin de Fustat’taki Ebü’s-Suûd Hamamı’nda bulunmuş boyalı stuko parçalarla bağlantılı olduğu varsayılır. Ayrıca Kahire ve Asvan’daki bazı türbelerin pandantif kesiminde tekrarlanan bu unsur, Keppel A. Cameron Creswell tarafından “stalaktit pandantif” olarak tanımlanır. Stalaktit sarkıtlı ya da damlalı bir oluşumdur. Mukarnası üçüncü boyuta taşıyan bu oluşum daha ileri bir aşamayı temsil eder, bu sebeple de daha geç tarihlerin ürünü olmalıdır.
Bir başka görüş en erken örneklerin Nîşâbur’da bulunduğunu kabul eder. IX veya X. yüzyıla ait bu örnekler yine boyalı stuko parçalardır. İran bölgesinde konut mimarisine ait olan bu örnekler niş parçaları olarak yorumlanır. Mukarnasın dış mimarideki ilk kullanımı için Mâzenderan’daki 413 (1022) tarihli Laçin Türbesi gösterilirken Sâmerrâ’nın kuzeyinde İmam Dur Türbesi’ndeki mukarnaslı kubbenin en eski örnek olabileceği de ileri sürülür. Kısacası mukarnasın XI. yüzyılda Mısır’da doğup Orta Asya’ya doğru yayıldığını kabul edenler olduğu gibi İslâm dünyasındaki merkezî konumundan dolayı Bağdat ve çevresini kaynak olarak kabul edenler de vardır. Ayrıca alçı malzemenin işlenme kolaylığı, keser ya da keskiyle ahşap üzerinde çalışan ustaların kolayca elde edebilecekleri sonuçlar olarak mukarnasın malzeme ve teknikle de yakından ilgili olabileceğini düşünenler vardır.
Sâsânîler’den beri İran bölgesindeki anıtsal yapılarda temel malzeme olan tuğla, Ortaçağ İslâm mimarisi sürecinde de zengin uygulamaların konusu olmaya devam etmiştir. XII. yüzyılın başında ele alınan Gülpâyegân Camii’nde mihrap önündeki kubbeye geçiş mukarnaslı tromp örneğinin devâsâ ölçekli bir uygulaması olarak dikkati çeker. Kubbe kasnağında 4 metreye yakın bir geçişle sekizgene dönüştürülen uygulama çıplak tuğla tekniğinin en güçlü mukarnas denemesidir. Esas olarak büyük bir sivri kemer sorunu çözmekte, ancak oluşan derin köşe boşluğu yeniden parçalanarak üstten gelen yük daha küçük birimlerle aşağıya aktarılmaktadır. Bir mihrap kavsarası formu tekrarlanırken tromp yüzeyinden bir kemerle alınan yük duvarlara indirilip farklı mukarnas hücrelerine dağıtılarak dengelenmektedir. Kubbeden gelen tonlarca ağırlığı düşey taşıyıcılara aktaran bu geçiş, yükün büyüklüğünü hissettirmeyecek ölçüde parçalayarak görüntüyü yumuşatmaktadır. Tuğla dokunun mukarnas formuyla böylesine rasyonel birleşimi, daha sonraki dönemlerde bir süs mimarisine dönüşerek arkitektonik etkisini kaybeder. Aynı yapının Batı eyvanı daha geç bir dönemde Safevîler tarafından bezenmiş (1112/1700-1701), renkli çinilerle olabildiğince zenginleştirilmiştir. 12 metreyi bulan duvar boyutlarıyla dörtgen planlı alt yapı yukarıya doğru çıkarken katmanlar halinde daraltılır. Arap ülkelerinde ve Anadolu’da tercih edilen bu uygulama mihrap kavsaralarının büyütülmüş bir modeli gibi durmakta, renkli fakat basık bir iç mekân atmosferi oluşmaktadır.
Mukarnasın dış yüzeylerdeki uygulaması en etkili görünüşleriyle minare şerefelerinin çıkmalarında görülmektedir. Bu konumda bir kule şeklinde yükseltilmiş gövdenin en uygun yerinde yapılan genişletme işlemi mukarnasla sağlanır. Küçük ve birbiriyle bağlantılı olarak yükselen prizmatik parçalar konsol işlevi görmekte, her katmanda biraz daha taşırılan mukarnas dizileri şerefe altında gerçek bir tabaka oluşturmaktadır. İsfahan’ın Gülbahar bölgesindeki Hâce Alem Minaresi bu tür uygulamanın en iyi örneklerinden biriydi. 1934’te yıkılan minare XIV. yüzyılın sonu veya XV. yüzyılın başına tarihlenmekteydi. Bir İlhanlı eseri olan minarenin şerefe kesiminde mozaik çinilerle ustaca dolgulanmış yüzeyler ışık-gölge ve renk etkilerini topluca veriyordu. Bir yıldız kesitine dönüşen gövdenin üst kısmı dairesel planlı şerefe platformuna bağlanırken prizmatik kırılmaları taşıyan bir mukarnas sistemi tuğla-çini beraberliğinin bütün avantajlarını da üstünde taşıdığından etkili bir görsel anıt niteliğindeydi.
Selçuklu ve Osmanlı yönetim sürecinde Anadolu’daki İslâm mimarisi yeni bir üslûp kazanarak yoluna devam ederken mimarideki önemli dönüşümlerden biri malzemede olmuştur. Bir başka deyişle tuğladan taşa geçerken bazı mimari unsurlar bu değişime uymuş, yeni ortaya çıkan formlar mukarnas uygulamalarını da etkilemiştir. İç mekânda mukarnas, tromptaki yerini pandantifin eğrisel yüzeyine terkederken mihrap kavsarasında tuğla veya taş malzemedeki yerini korumuş, hatta XIII. yüzyıl Selçuklu camilerinde çinili mukarnas bir süre daha kullanılmıştır. Buna karşılık dış yüzeylerde dekorasyonun yoğunlaştığı taçkapılar, mukarnasın gelişerek çeşitlendiği mimari unsurlar şeklinde dikkati çekmeye devam etmiştir.
Selçuklu başşehri Konya’da dönemin ünlü kurumlarından biri olan Karatay Medresesi’nin (649/1251) taçkapısı pek çok bakımdan taş işçiliğinin tipik göstergelerini sergiler. Mimarı bilinmemekle birlikte Şamlı bir ustanın (Muhammed b. Havlân ed-Dımaşkī) adı üzerinde durulmaktadır. İki renkli mermer malzeme, düğümler, geçmeler yanında düz atkılı girişin üstündeki mukarnaslı kavsara XIII. yüzyıl ortalarında ulaşılmış olgun bir taş işçiliğini yansıtır. Sivri kemerin içinde katmanlar halinde daralarak yükselen petek sıraları gölgelenen girinti içinde yeterince hareketli bir doku oluşturmakta, yaprak motifleriyle detaylandırılan küçük hücreler taçkapı genelindeki etkiye katılmaktadır.
XV. yüzyıldan sonra mukarnasın giderek sarkıt formlarına doğru çeşitlemeler yaptığı, püskül ya da damlalar (sarkıtlar) halinde zenginleştiği görülür. Ancak hangi çeşitleme olursa olsun mukarnasta ilke, tepede daralan içbükey dönüşlü kavsara yüzeyinin tabandaki dikdörtgen kesitli planla buluşmasını sağlamak, yatayla düşeyi kavisli bir yüzeyle bağlamaktır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Lane, Lexicon, VII, 2519; Steingass, Dictionary, s. 1293; Webster’s Third, s. 508; Mevlût Sarı, el-Mevârid: Arapça-Türkçe Lûgat, İstanbul 1982, s. 1223; Redhouse Yeni Türkçe-İngilizce Sözlük , İstanbul 1984, s. 795; J. Rosenthal, L’origine des stalactites de l’architecture orientale, Paris 1938; a.mlf., Pendentifs: Trompenin Stalaktiten, Leipzig 1912; a.mlf., Pendentifs: Trompes et stalactites dans l’architecture orientale, Paris 1928; Celal Esad Arseven, Les arts décoratifs turcs, İstanbul, ts. (Millî Eğitim Basımevi), s. 102-112; Fatin Uluengin, “Stalaktit Planlarının Hendesesi”, Milletlerarası Birinci Türk Sanatları Kongresi (Ankara 19-24 Ekim 1959), Kongreye Sunulan Tebliğler, Ankara 1962, s. 380-382; A. Petersen, Dictionary of Islamic Architecture, London 1966, s. 206-208; L. Golvin, Essai sur l’architecture religieuse musulmane, Paris 1970, I, 154-159; U. Harb, Il-Chanidische Stalaktitengewölbe: Beitrage zu Entwurf, Form und Bautechnik (doktora tezi, 1974), Universität Wien; a.mlf., Islamische Stalaktitengewölbe, Berlin 1978; Ayla Ödekan, Osmanlı Öncesi Anadolu Türk Mimarisinde Mukarnaslı Portal Örtüleri (doktora tezi, 1977), İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Mimarlık Fakültesi; a.mlf., Erken Dönem Osmanlı Mukarnaslı Kapı Nişi Örtüleri (doçentlik tezi, 1981), İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Mimarlık Fakültesi; a.mlf., “Mukarnas Ögesinde Bezemesel Çeşitlilik”, Prof. H. Kemali Söylemezoğlu’na, İstanbul 1982, s. 87-96; a.mlf., “Mukarnas Onarım İle İlgili Gözlemler”, Rölöve ve Restorasyon Dergisi, sy. 4, Ankara 1982, s. 65-70; a.mlf., “Some Observations on Mukarnas Decoration of the Portal Coverings of the Sinan Period”, II. Uluslararası Türk ve İslam Bilim ve Teknoloji Tarihi Kongresi, İstanbul 1986, II, 115-124; K. A. C. Creswell, The Muslim Architecture of Egypt, New York 1978, I, 251-253; Selçuk Mülayim, “Tarih Kitabeli Bir Mukarnas Başlık”, Aslanapa Armağanı, İstanbul 1996, s. 151-162; Halil İbrahim Kunt, Konya Selçuklu Portallerinde Geometrik ve Mukarnas Tezyinat (yüksek lisans tezi, 1998), SÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü; E. Pauty, “Contribution a l’étude des stalactites”, BIFAO, XXIX (1929), s. 129-153; L. Hautecoeur, “De la trompe aux mukarnas”, Gazette des beaux arts, VI, Paris 1931, s. 27-51; R. P. Spiers, “Haney Comb (Stalactite) Vaulting”, Architecture East and West, sy. 13-14, London 1965, s. 44-56; Yılmaz Önge, “Anadolu Mimari Sanatında Ahşap Stalaktit Sütun Başlıkları”, Önasya, IV/37, Ankara 1968, s. 6-9; C. Williams, “The Mosque af al-Aqmar”, Muqarnas, I, Leiden 1983, s. 37-52; Yasser Tabbaa, “The Muqarnas Dome: Its Origin and Meaning”, a.e., III (1985), s. 61-74; M. J. Bloom, “The Introduction of the Muqarnas into Egypt”, a.e., V (1988), s. 21-28; E. Diez – Oktay Aslanapa, “Mukarnas”, İA, VIII, 564-567; A. Fernandez-Puertas, “Muḳarbaṣ”, EI2 (İng.), VII, 500-501; Doris Behrens-Abouseif, “Muḳarnas”, a.e., VII, 501-506; “Karnas”, SA, II, 963-966.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2006 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 31. cildinde, 126-128 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.