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MÜZAYEDE Skip to content
Sözlükte “artmak, çoğalmak; arttırmak” anlamlarındaki zeyd (ziyâde) kökünden türeyen müzâyede kelimesi “fiyat arttırmada rekabet etmek” demektir. Fıkıh terimi olarak satış işleminde açık arttırma yöntemini ifade eder. Bu usulle yapılan satım akdine bey‘u’l-müzâyede, bey‘u men yezîd, bey‘u’d-dilâle, bey‘u’l-münâdât gibi isimler de verilmektedir. Çünkü belli yerlerde mezat kurma uygulaması başlamadan önceki açık arttırma geleneği bir mezatçının (dellâl) satmaya vekil kılındığı malla birlikte pazarı dolaşıp müzayede duyurusunda bulunarak en yüksek fiyatı verecek müşteriyi araması şeklinde cereyan etmiştir. Bu yöntemin karşıtına münâkasa (eksiltme) adı verilir.
Fakihlerin çoğunluğu, Bakara sûresinin 275. âyetini ve Hz. Peygamber’in fakir bir sahâbîye ait bazı şeyleri bu yöntemle satmasını (Buhârî, “Büyûʿ”, 59; İbn Mâce, “Ticârât”, 25; Ebû Dâvûd, “Zekât”, 27; Tirmizî, “Büyûʿ”, 10; Nesâî, “Büyûʿ”, 22) delil göstererek bey‘ ve icâre gibi ivazlı işlemlerde müzayedeyi mubah saymıştır. Halife Hz. Ömer’in de zekât develerini aynı usulle sattığı rivayet edilmektedir (İbn Hazm, VIII, 448). Ancak Resûl-i Ekrem’in müzayedeyi yasakladığına dair zayıf bir hadise (Şevkânî, V, 271) dayanan İbrâhim en-Nehaî bu yöntemin kerâhetine kanaat getirmiştir. Hasan-ı Basrî, İbn Sîrîn, Evzâî, İbn Râhûye ise bir başka rivayetten hareketle (Müsned, II, 71; Dârekutnî, III, 11) bunu ganimetlerin ve mirasların satımı dışında mekruh saymıştır. Velâyet sahibinin velisi bulunduğu kişiye veya devlet yetkililerinin kamuya ait olan ya da mahkemenin haczedilen malı satarken müzayede usulünü uygulaması müstehap kabul edilmiştir.
Bir önceki teklif sahibiyle satıcı arasında anlaşma eğilimi belirmeden sürdürüldüğü için müzayede hadislerle yasaklanmış olan pazarlık üzerine pazarlıktan ayrılmaktadır. Satıcı veya vekili mala kıymetine denk bir teklif gelmediği için ilânı durdurduktan sonra da arttırmada bulunmanın câizliği hususunda ittifak vardır. Ancak tarafların mutabakat sağlamasının ardından bilerek yapılan arttırma pazarlık üzerine pazarlık kapsamına girer (bk. MÜSÂVEME). Mezatçının tekliflerden biriyle ilgili olarak mal sahibinin fikrini almak üzere duyuruya ara vermesi sırasında da -satış emri gelmedikçe- arttırmada bulunulabilir. Fakat Mâlikî ve Hanefîler, satıcının katılımcılardan birinin teklifini kabule meyledip ilânı durdurmasından sonraki arttırmayı pazarlık üzerine pazarlıkla özdeşleştirerek haram sayar.
Müzayede yöntemiyle gerçekleştirilen satışın sıhhat şartları genelde bey‘ akdininkilerle aynıdır. Hanefîler’e göre mezada katılanların teklifleri farklı icapları, satıcının belli bir fiyattan satışa muvafakati ise kabulü oluşturur. Diğer mezheplerden meydana gelen çoğunluk ise satıcının onayını ertelenmiş icap, alıcıların tekliflerini kabul sayar. Genelde İslâm ülkelerinin çağdaş medenî kanunlarında Hanefî yaklaşımı benimsenmiştir.
Mâlikî mezhebindeki kuvvetli görüşe göre müzayede meclisinde her müşterinin teklifi, satıcı malını verilen bir fiyattan satmayı kararlaştırdığı takdirde mezat dağılıncaya kadar bağlayıcıdır. Ayrıca artış beklentisi yeni bir pey sürülse bile öncekinin bağlayıcılığını düşürmez. Mâlikîler’den İbyânî’ye göre ise başka bir teklif gelince bağlayıcılık öncekinden düşer ve yenisine geçer. Hattâb, kendi zamanında Mekkeliler’in örfünde de bağlayıcılığın süreğen olmadığını söylemektedir. Zürkānî, müzayedede satıcının -bizzat şart koşması veya örfün mezat meclisi dağılana kadar malını tutmasına imkân vermesi hâlinde- iştirakçilerden dilediğini alımla ilzam edebileceği kanaatindedir.
Mâlikîler’e göre esasen örf taraflar ayrıldıktan sonra bile teklifin bağlayıcılığı yönünde oluşmuşsa veya satıcı bunu şart koşmuşsa iştirakçi, teamülün gerektirdiği veya satıcının şartında belirttiği süre dolmadıkça malı satın almakla mükelleftir. Mâzerî bazı kadıların, icapsız dağılmaların âdet haline geldiği pazarlardaki müzayedelerde tekliflerin tarafların ayrılmasından sonra dahi bağlayıcılığını korumasına hükmettiklerini, halbuki müşterinin -örfe aykırı düşse bile- teklifinin bağlayıcılığının mezat meclisinin sonuna kadar geçerli olmasını şart koşabileceğini belirtir. İmam Mâlik, haczedilmiş mallar veya ölünün terekesi içindeki taşınırların mezadının üç gün, taşınmazlarınkinin vasıfları duyurularak iki üç ay kadar sürdürülmesini müstehap diye niteler. İbnü’l-Kāsım, bu tür malların satışa çıkarıldığı mezattaki teklifleri resmî satış onayı alınıncaya kadar bağlayıcı sayar. Zamanımızda genellikle kapalı zarf usulü arttırmalarda teklifler değerlendirmenin sonuçlandırılacağı muayyen tarihe kadar, açık arttırma (alenî müzayede) uygulamasında ise mezat tamamlanıncaya kadar bağlayıcılığını korumaktadır.
Teklifin geri çekilmesi başkasının daha yüksek fiyat vermesinden önce gerçekleşirse bu durumda icaptan rücûun diğer satışlardakinden farkı yoktur; çünkü iştirakçinin kabul edilmeden önce icabından dönme muhayyerliği vardır. Ancak bazı Mâlikîler’e göre müşteri icabının geçerliliğini belli bir süreyle kayıtlamışsa -ki bu bütün iştirakçilerin tekliflerinin bağlayıcılığı yönündeki mezhep görüşüne aykırıdır- o müddetin sonuna kadar rücû hakkını kullanamaz. Hanefî ve Mâlikîler’e göre karşılıklı icap ve kabul gerçekleştikten sonra taraflar aynı mecliste bulunmayı sürdürseler bile satıcının daha yüksek bir teklif geldiğinde rücû hakkı yokken Şâfiî ve Hanbelîler’e göre vardır. Bu görüş ayrılığının sebebi ikinci gruptakilerin satıcıya meclis muhayyerliği tanıması, birincilerin tanımamasıdır. Müzayedenin ayıp muhayyerliğinin geçerli olduğu diğer alım satım türlerindekinden farkı yoktur (bk. MUHAYYERLİK). Mâlikîler’e göre ayıp muhayyerliğinde sorumlu merci mal sahibidir; ücretli işçi konumundaki mezatçının tazmin sorumluluğu bulunmaz. Ayrıca çoğunluk, açık arttırma sırasında malın kasıtsız ve kusursuz telefi halinde de onu tazminle yükümlü kılmaz.
Mâlikî mezhebinin meşhur görüşüne göre şu şartlar dışında gabn iddiası alınan malı iade hakkı sağlamaz. 1. Aldanan kişi onun piyasa fiyatından habersiz olmalıdır. 2. Sözleşmenin üzerinden geçen süre bir yılı aşmamalıdır. 3. Gabn fâhiş olmalıdır. Bunun ölçüsü emsâl bedelin en az üçte biri, üçte birinden fazlası veya alışılmamış miktardır. Ancak mezhep mensupları arasında, bu noktada müzayede ile diğer alım satım türleri arasında ayırım yapmayanların yanı sıra birçok teklif sahibinin ve ilânın bulunması sebebiyle gabn iddiasının geçersizliğine hükmedenler de vardır. Diğer mezhepler tağrîrle (aldatma) birlikte olmayan salt gabn iddiasına itibar etmez; ikisinin beraberliği durumunda ise müzayedeyi diğer alım satım türlerinden ayırmaz. Mâlikîler, özel kişilere veya kamuya ait malların resmî makamlarca satıldığı müzayedede önceden şart koşulmasa bile müşteriye ayıp muhayyerliği tanımaz; çünkü ayıbın varlığı bilinmeyebilir.
İbnü’l-Kāsım’a göre iki kişi aynı teklifi verir ve başka arttıran çıkmazsa malı ortaklaşa alırlar. Îsâ b. Dînâr ise önce sürülen peye denk başka bir teklifin kabul edilmemesi gerektiği, dolayısıyla malın ilk iştirakçinin hakkı olduğu kanaatindedir; ancak ona göre de aynı fiyatın eş zamanlı olarak iki kişi tarafından verilmesi durumunda paylaşırlar. Bu hükmün yetimin velisi, sultan ve vekil gibi başkasının malını satanlar için söz konusu olduğu, kendi metâını pazarlayanın ikisinden dilediğine ve hatta daha düşük pey sürene bile verebileceği de söylenmiştir. Fakat en son icabın öncekileri düşüreceği görüşünü savunanlara göre daha düşük teklif sahibine ihale mümkün değildir. Genellikle günümüzdeki kapalı zarf usulünde mal veya ihale en yüksek teklif sahibinden başka bir iştirakçiye devredilebilmektedir.
Mâlikîler’e ve Hanbelîler’den Takıyyüddin İbn Teymiyye’ye göre iki iştirakçiden birinin malın daha ucuza kapatılması için rakibiyle belli bir pay veya maktû bedel karşılığında anlaşarak müzayededen çekilmesini istemesinde başka tekliflerin gelmesi ihtimali varsa sakınca yoktur. Kalan iştirakçi, arttırmadan ayrılan tarafa aralarındaki anlaşma karşılığında borçlandığı bedeli malı satın almasa bile ödemekle mükelleftir. Söz konusu payın mal üzerindeki gizli ortaklık sebebiyle değil ödül olarak belirlenmesi durumunda çekilme talebi câiz sayılmaz. Ayrıca daha sonra paylaşmak maksadıyla ihtiyaç duydukları malı yahut ihaleyi ucuza kapatmak için biri hariç bütün veya çoğu iştirakçilerin ya da tüccarbaşı gibi çoğunluğu peşinden sürükleyebilecek konumdakinin danışıklı çekilmesi satıcıya zarar vereceğinden câiz görülmemiştir. Mâlikîler bunu müşteri açısından neceşe (muvâzaalı arttırma) kıyaslamakta ve satıcının rızasını zedelediğini düşünmektedir. Gerçekleşmesi durumunda akid sahihtir, fakat satıcı fesih muhayyerliğine sahiptir. Mal yok olmuşsa kıymetini veya muvâzaalı satış bedelinden yüksek olanını talep hakkı vardır. Ayrıca vekil konumundaki mezatçının iştirakçilerden biriyle gizlice ortaklık yapması -malı daha pahalıya pazarlamaya çalışmayabileceği için- Hanefî, Mâlikî ve Hanbelîler’ce satıcıya hıyanet sayılmıştır. Şâfiîler buna mal sahibinin onaylaması kaydıyla, bir rivayete göre Ahmed b. Hanbel de piyasa fiyatının üzerine çıkılması durumunda cevaz vermiştir. Takıyyüddin İbn Teymiyye’ye göre yetkili merciler, kendilerine müzayede usulüyle satmaları için emanet edilen malları ortaklaşa almakta anlaşan mezatçılara tövbekâr oluncaya kadar meslekten men dahil ta‘zîr cezası uygulamalıdır (Mecmûʿu fetâvâ, XXIX, 305).
Fukahanın çoğunluğu, üçüncü kişilerce alım kastı bulunmaksızın pazarlık sırasında araya girilerek yapılan, mala rağbeti arttırıcı, göstermelik, yanıltıcı yüksek fiyat tekliflerini hadislerde yasaklanan (Wensinck, el-Muʿcem, “ncş” md.) neceş kapsamında değerlendirir. Mütekaddim Şâfiîler’e göre böyle bir işleme neceş hükmü verilmesi için aldatma kastının bulunması dahi gerekmez. Müzayede sırasındaki neceşin hüküm bakımından diğer alım satım yöntemlerindeki neceşten farkı yoktur. Neceşin önlenmesinin gerekliliği ve neceş yapanın günahkârlığı hususunda görüş birliği vardır. Neceş işleyen kişi satıcıyla anlaşmalı ise günahta ona ortaktır. Sahâbî Abdullah b. Ebû Evfâ neceş yapanı “hain faiz yiyici” şeklinde niteler (Buhârî, “Büyûʿ”, 60; “Şehâdât”, 22). Neceşli satım işlemlerini Hanefîler dışındaki üç mezhebin mensupları ve Zâhirîler haram sayar. Hanefîler’e göre malı kıymetine eriştiren tekliften sonraki neceş tahrîmen mekruhtur; önceki ise aldatma içermediğinden mekruh değildir.
Ancak hadislerdeki yasağın, erkân ve şartları tamam olan akdin özüne veya aslî unsurlarına değil mücâvir ya da hâricî vasfına taalluk ettiği gerekçesiyle neceşli satım işlemi fukahanın çoğunluğunca hukuken (kazâen) geçerli görülmüştür. İlgili hadislerin zâhirine itibar edenlere göre neceş yasağı bu usulle gerçekleştirilen akdin fesadını gerektirir. İmam Mâlik’ten ve Ahmed b. Hanbel’den de böyle bir görüş rivayet edilmiştir. Fukahanın genel tavrı neceşin rızayı zedelediği gerekçesiyle müşteriye bazı kayıtlarla akdi iptal hakkı verilmesi yönündedir (Mustafa Ahmed ez-Zerkā, I, 378-379). Bazı Mâlikîler, satıcının neceş yapıldığını bildiği gabn-i fâhiş durumunda akdi hüküm bakımından ayıbın / kusurun gizlendiği satış gibi görüp müşteriye malı iade muhayyerliği tanır. Şâfiîler’den Mâlikîler’e katılanlar varsa da diğerleri bunun için satıcının neceşten haberi bulunması kaydını koymazlar. Zâhirîler, muhayyerlik hakkını malın satış fiyatının neceş sebebiyle kıymetini aşması şartına bağlar. Bir rivayette Ahmed b. Hanbel ve bazı Hanbelîler, müşterinin alışılmamış gabn-i fâhiş (bedelin üçte veya altıda biri) halinde akdi feshedebileceği kanaatindedir.
Osmanlı Devleti’nden bu yana kamu ihale sisteminin özel yasalarla düzenlenmesi zorunluluğu 1857 tarihli nizamnâme ile başlamış, devlet ihtiyaçlarının karşılanmasıyla ilgili işlemler 22 Nisan 1925 tarihinden itibaren 661 sayılı Müzayede, Münakasa ve İhalât Kanunu hükümleri çerçevesinde yürütülmüş, 2 Haziran 1934 tarihli ve 2490 sayılı Arttırma, Eksiltme ve İhale Kanunu ile resmî alım, satım, yapım ve hizmet gibi ihtiyaçların karşılanmasında uygulanacak nizam ve esaslar belirlenmiştir.
İslâm Konferansı Teşkilâtı’na bağlı İslâm Fıkıh Akademisi 1994 yılında Bruney’de gerçekleştirdiği sekizinci dönem toplantısında bey‘, icâre vb. işlemlerin müzayedeye konu olabileceği, ihtiyarî ve cebrî gibi kısımlara ayrılan bu akdin / tanzim şeklinin, kayıt, kural ve şartlarının şer‘î ahkâmla çatışmaması gerektiği, iştirakçilerden teminat alınabileceği, ancak mezat sonunda bunun alıcının / yüklenicinin ödeyeceği bedelden düşülüp diğerlerine geri ödenmesi icab ettiği, kayıt ücreti talebine bir mani bulunmadığı ve neceşin çeşitli türlerinin haram kılındığı kanaatine ulaşmıştır (Mecelletü Mecmaʿi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî, VIII/2 [1994], s. 169-170).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Wensinck, el-Muʿcem, “ncş” md.; Müsned, II, 71; Buhârî, “Büyûʿ”, 58-60, 64, 70, “Şehâdât”, 22, “Şürûṭ”, 8, 11, “Ḥiyel”, 6, “Edeb”, 81; Müslim, “Nikâḥ”, 51-52, “Birr”, 30, 32, “Şürûṭ”, 11, “Büyûʿ”, 11-13; İbn Mâce, “Ticârât”, 14, 25; Ebû Dâvûd, “Zekât”, 27, “İcâre”, 10; Tirmizî, “Büyûʿ”, 10, 65; Nesâî, “Nikâḥ”, 20, “Büyûʿ”, 16-17, 19, 21-22; Sahnûn, el-Müdevvene, IV, 353; Tahâvî, Muḫtaṣaru İḫtilâfi’l-ʿulemâʾ (nşr. Abdullah Nezîr Ahmed), Beyrut 1416/1995, III, 47; Dârekutnî, es-Sünen (nşr. Abdullah Hâşim Yemânî el-Medenî), Kahire, ts. (Dârü’l-mehâsin), III, 11; İbn Hazm, el-Muḥallâ, VIII, 447-449; Bâcî, el-Münteḳā, Kahire 1332, V, 101; Serahsî, el-Mebsûṭ, XV, 76; İbn Rüşd, el-Beyân ve’t-taḥṣîl (nşr. Ahmed eş-Şerkāvî İkbâl – Muhammed Haccî), Beyrut 1404/1984, VIII, 474-476; İbn Rüşd, Bidâyetü’l-müctehid, II, 145-147; İbn Kudâme, el-Muġnî (Herrâs), IV, 234-237; V, 117-119; Abdülkerîm b. Muhammed er-Râfiî, el-ʿAzîz şerḥu’l-Vecîz (nşr. Ali M. Muavvaz – Âdil Ahmed Abdülmevcûd), Beyrut 1417/1997, IV, 130, 131-132; Nevevî, el-Mecmûʿ, XIII, 17-19; İbn Teymiyye, Mecmûʿu fetâvâ, XXIX, 304-305; XXX, 97-99; Şemseddin İbn Müflih, Kitâbü’l-Fürûʿ (nşr. Abdüssettâr Ahmed Ferrâc), Beyrut 1405/1985, IV, 96-97, 402; İbnü’l-Mülakkın, Tuḥfetü’l-muḥtâc ilâ edilleti’l-Minhâc (nşr. Abdullah b. Saâf el-Lihyânî), Mekke 1406/1986, IV, 314, 315-316; İbnü’l-Hümâm, Fetḥu’l-ḳadîr, VI, 476-477, 479; Hattâb, Mevâhibü’l-celîl, Beyrut 1398, IV, 237-239; Buhûtî, Keşşâfü’l-ḳınâʿ, III, 183, 198-199, 212, 432-433; Muhammed b. Abdullah el-Haraşî, Şerḥu Muḫtaṣarı Ḫalîl, Bulak 1318, V, 82-83; Muhammed b. Ahmed ed-Desûkī, Ḥâşiye ʿale’ş-Şerḥi’l-kebîr, [baskı yeri ve tarihi yok] (Dârü’l-fikr), III, 5, 67-68, 159, 170; IV, 26, 27; Şevkânî, Neylü’l-evṭâr, V, 268-271; Mustafa Ahmed ez-Zerkā, el-Fıḳhü’l-İslâmî fî s̱evbihi’l-cedîd, Dımaşk 1967-68, I, 377-379; Ali Muhyiddin el-Karadâğî, Mebdeʾü’r-rıżâ fi’l-ʿuḳūd, Beyrut 1406/1985, I, 633-640; M. Revvâs Kal‘acî, el-Muʿâmelâtü’l-mâliyyetü’l-muʿâṣıra fî ḍavʾi’l-fıḳh ve’ş-şerîʿa, Beyrut 1420/1999, s. 142-149; Necâtî M. İlyas Kavkâzî, Beyʿu’l-müzâyede: el-Mezâdü’l-ʿalenî, aḥkâmühû ve taṭbîḳātühü’l-muʿâṣıra: Dirâse fıḳhiyye muʿâṣıra, Amman 1424/2004, s. 36-196; M. Osman Şübeyr, “ʿAḳdü beyʿi’l-müzâyede beyne’ş-şerîʿa ve’l-ḳānûn”, Mecelletü’ş-şerîʿa ve’d-dirâsâti’l-İslâmiyye, V/11, Küveyt 1988, s. 331-380; M. Muhtâr es-Selâmî, “Beyʿu’l-müzâyede”, Mecelletü Mecmaʿi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî, VIII/2, Cidde 1415/1994, s. 9-52; Abdülvehhâb İbrâhim Ebû Süleyman, “ʿAḳdü’l-müzâyede beyne’ş-şerîʿati’l-İslâmiyye ve’l-ḳānûn: Dirâse muḳabele maʿa’t-terkîz ʿalâ baʿżi’l-ḳażâya’l-muʿâṣıra”, a.e., s. 53-133; “Ḳarâr raḳm: 77/4/8d bi-şeʾni ʿaḳdi’l-müzâyede”, a.e., s. 169-170; “Beyʿ menhiyyün ʿanh”, Mv.F, IX, 219-222; “Müzâyede”, a.e., XXXVII, 86-93; “Neceş”, a.e., XL, 118-120.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2006 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 32. cildinde, 236-238 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.