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NAKKAŞ Skip to content Çeşitli maddeler üzerine resim ve süsleme yapan sanatkâr, ressam, işlemeci.
Sözlükte “birden fazla renkte boyamak, iğne veya özel aletlerle işleme yaparak süslemek” anlamındaki nakş kökünden türeyen nakkāş bu işi meslek edinenlere verilen unvandır. Bu unvan aslında hakkâk, oymacı, tezhip ustası gibi sanatçıları da içermekle birlikte tarihte daha çok “ressam, minyatür ressamı” mânasında kullanılmış, bez ve kumaş üzerine iğneyle işleme yapanlara, motif nakşedenlere de nakşbend denilmiştir. Nakkaş kelimesi, daha çok minyatür ressamları için kullanılmaya başlandığı Emevî sonrası dönemlerde kitap sanatındaki müzehhip, siyahkalem, musavvir, şebihnüvis, meclisnüvis, cetvelkeş, renkzen ve tarrâh gibi değişik işler yapanların tamamını kapsamına almıştır. Bununla beraber genellikle minyatürcülere musavvir, tezhip yapanlara müzehhib ve boyasız çalışma yapanlara tarrâh adı verilmiştir.
Nakış kelimesi, ilk dönem İslâm kaynaklarında mühür olarak kullanılan “yüzük üzerindeki yazı ve resimler” anlamında geçmektedir. Kettânî’ye göre Hz. Peygamber’in yüzüğünün nakşı hakkındaki rivayetler Medine’de o dönemde bir nakkaşın varlığını göstermektedir (et-Terâtîbü’l-idâriyye, II, 292). Kaynaklarda nakkaşlara üzerinde çalıştığı materyal veya eşyaya göre “nakkāşü’l-fidda, nakkāşü’z-zeheb, nakkāşü’s-sikke, nakkāşü’l-hicâre” gibi adlar verilmiştir. Meselâ mûsikişinas İbn Süreyc’in mugannî damadı Ebû Mes‘ûd Saîd’in aynı zamanda nakkaş olduğu ve Ebûkubeys’te taştan tencere (bürme) yaptığı rivayet edilir (Ebü’l-Ferec el-İsfahânî, V, 70; Safedî, XV, 261). Eş‘arî kelâmcısı Ebû Ca‘fer Muhammed es-Sülemî de “nakkāşü’l-fidda” idi (Hatîb, I, 325; İbnü’l-Cevzî, VII, 151). Mugīre b. Şu‘be’nin İranlı Mecûsî kökenli kölesi Ebû Lü’lü’ün demircilik ve marangozluk yanında nakkaşlık da yaptığı rivayet edilir (Abdürrezzâk es-San‘ânî, V, 474; İbn Sa‘d, III, 345). İslâm sanatının günümüze ulaşan en eski nakkaşlık örnekleri Emevîler dönemine ait Kubbetü’s-sahre, Emeviyye Camii ve Kusayru Amre’deki fresk, kabartma ve mozaiklerdir. Abbâsîler devrinde özellikle Bağdat’ta 100’den fazla kitapçı dükkânı vardı ve istinsah edilen kitapların bir bölümü mutlaka minyatürlerle süsleniyordu.
Nakkaşlığın gelişmesinde Çin, İran ve Mezopotamya kültürlerinin yanında Nestûrîler ve Suriyeli hıristiyanlarla Halife Me’mûn’un ve Bermekîler’in teveccühünü kazanan Maniheist ressamların etkisi olmuştur. III. yüzyılda İran’da yaşayan Maniheizm’in kurucusu Mezopotamya kökenli Mani-i Nakkāş’ın (DİA, XXX, 118) kitaplarında mevcut kendi yaptığı minyatürler özellikle Uygurlar arasında yayılmış ve onların müslüman olmasıyla da İslâm nakkaşlığını etkilemiştir. Selçuklu nakkaşı Abdülmü’min el-Hûyî’nin resimlediği bir Varaḳa vü Gülşâh nüshası ile (TSMK, Hazine, nr. 841) diğer bazı Selçuklu yazmalarının minyatürlerinde ve çeşitli seramik nakışlarında Uygur üslûbunun etkileri açıkça görülmektedir (a.g.e., I, 274). Selçuklular’ın Bağdat’ı ele geçirmesinden sonra edebî, tarihî ve ilmî eserlerin saray kütüphanelerine kazandırılması ve sultanlara sunulması bu sanatın gelişmesinde büyük rol oynamıştır. Abbâsî devrinden günümüze az sayıda nakkaşın eser ve menkıbeleri ulaşabilmiştir. Bunlardan biri, Tuğrul Bey için bir şiir külliyatını şairlerin portreleriyle süsleyen Cemâleddîn-i İsfahânî’dir. Onun yanında XIII. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinde Dioskorides’in farmakoloji kitabı Kitâbü’l-Ḫaṣâʾiṣ fi’ṭ-ṭıbb’ın nakkaşı Abdullah b. Fazl ile Harîrî’nin el-Maḳāmât’ını resimleyen Vâsıtlı Yahyâ b. Mahmûd’un adları zikredilebilir. Çin sanatını bilen Türk ustaları kanalıyla Doğu Asya’nın resim anlayışı Batı’ya intikal etmeye başlamış ve önceleri Semerkant nakkaşlık sanatının merkezi iken daha sonra Herat öne geçmiştir. Moğol istilâsından sonra nakkaşlık sanatı daha da gelişmiştir. Moğol hânedanlarından Celâyirliler bu sanatta bir ekol kabul edilirler (bk. Kühnel, A Survey of Persian Art, V, 1838 vd.). İlhanlı Veziri Reşîdüddin Fazlullah’ın Tebriz yakınlarında kurduğu Rab‘-ı Reşîdî mahallesinde de sanat atölyeleri yer alıyordu. Timurlu Şâhruh devrinde (1405-1447) ise Gıyâseddin Baysungur’un himayesinde Herat’ta bir kitap sanatı akademisi (kitaphâne) kurulmuş, birçok nakkaşın yetiştiği bu akademi Hüseyin Baykara’nın saltanat yıllarında (1470-1506) en parlak dönemini yaşamıştır. Minyatür sanatının en büyük ustası kabul edilen Bihzâd da değerli eserlerini burada vermiştir. Onun hocası olduğu söylenen Tebrizli Pîr Seyyid Ahmed, İran-Moğol ortak üslûbunun öncüsü sayılan Buharalı üstat Cihangir’in talebesiydi; Cihangir ise Çinli nakkaş Gung’dan ders almıştı (Âlî, s. 64; Kühnel, Doğu İslâm Memleketlerinde Minyatür, s. 29). Tebriz, Şîraz, İsfahan, Buhara, Semerkant ve Herat Moğol kökenli idarelerin yıkılmasından sonra da önemli minyatür merkezleri olma özelliklerini sürdürdüler. Akkoyunlular, Karakoyunlular ve Safevîler dönemlerinde buralarda birçok ünlü nakkaş yetişmiştir. Sultan Muhammed, öğrencisi Heratlı üstat Muhammedî, önce İran, ardından Osmanlı sarayına hizmet eden Şahkulu, kadın nakkaş Bîbîceh, Mîr Musavvir, Âgā Mîrek, Dost Muhammed, Mirza Ali, Mîr Seyyid Ali, Muzaffer Ali, Şeyh Muhammed ve Abdüssamed bunlardan bazılarıdır.
Safevî sarayında bir müddet sürgün hayatı yaşayan Hümâyun’un ülkesine dönerken yanında Tebrizli sanatkârları da götürmüş olmasından dolayı Bâbürlü sarayında nakkaşlığa ilgi artmıştır. Hint-Bâbür nakkaşlığında en verimli dönem Ekber Şah zamanıdır. Ekber Şah’ın veziri Ebü’l-Fazl, Âyîn-i Ekberî’de nakkaşlar için özel bir bölüm ayırmıştır. Onun verdiği bilgilerden Bâbürlü sarayında Hindu ve müslüman nakkaşların beraber çalıştıkları anlaşılmaktadır. Bu nakkaşlar arasında Abdüssamed, Mîr Seyyid Ali, Hüseyin Nakkaş, Basavan, Kesu Des (Kesu Kalan), önce İran, sonra Cihangir’in saray atölyesinde çalışan Âgā Rızâ Cihangîrî, Ferruh Beg, Miskin, Manohar, Mîr Hâşim, Bisan Das, Biçitr, Ebü’l-Hasan (Nâdirü’z-zamân), Govardhan, Payag ve tabiat tasvirleriyle ünlü Nakkaş Mansûr’un (Nâdirü’l-asr) yaptığı resim ve minyatürlerle süslenmiş edebî ve tarihî birçok eser günümüze ulaşmıştır. Evrengzîb zamanında saray nakkaşlığına önceki dönem kadar önem verilmemiştir; ancak saray dışında çalışan nakkaşlar bu sanatı devam ettirmişlerdir.
Osmanlılar’da nakkaşlık önce Amasya ve Bursa’da başlamış, ardından Edirne Sarayı’nda gelişmiştir. Şîraz’dan Edirne’ye geldiği sanılan bazı nakkaşlar yerli ustalarla beraber çalışmıştır. İstanbul’un fethinden sonra yetişen nakkaşlar arasında Fâtih Sultan Mehmed’in resimlerini yapan Sinan Bey ile Bursalı Şiblîzâde Ahmed ve Şehnâme-i Melik Ümmî’yi (TSMK, Hazine, nr. 1123) minyatürlerle süsleyen Abdullah Nakkaş’ın adları zikredilebilir. Yavuz Sultan Selim’in İran ve Mısır’dan getirdiği farklı gelenekleri temsil eden nakkaşlar Herat üslûbunu hatırlatan yeni bir üslûp geliştirmiştir. Nakkaşlar zamanla Osmanlı ehl-i hiref teşkilâtının en önemli bölüklerinden biri haline gelmiştir. Rebîülâhir 932 (Ocak-Şubat 1526) tarihli bir mevâcib defterinde başta Şahkulu, Melek Ahmed, Hasan b. Mehmed, Hasan b. Abdülcelîl gibi büyük ustaların yer aldığı listede yirmi dokuz nakkaş ve on iki şâkirdin ismi zikredilmektedir (Meriç, s. 3-4). Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman, Şahkulu’na özel bir atölye tahsis etmişti ve zaman zaman kendisini ziyaret eder, çalışmasını seyrederdi. Saray nakkaşlarının tayinleri Enderûn-ı Hümâyun hazinedarbaşının arzının yanı sıra reîsülküttâbın tezkiresi de göz önünde bulundurularak yapılırdı. Ehl-i hiref mevâcib defterlerinden nakkaşların bir kısmının Acem kökenli oldukları anlaşılmakta, Anadolu’dan gelen nakkaşların ise Rûmî nisbesiyle anıldığı görülmektedir (a.g.e., s. 3 vd.). Bunlar ayrıca nakkaşlar, şâkirdler, müteferrika nakkaşlar gibi kısımlara ayrılıyordu; başlarında da sernakkāşândan başka kethüdâ, serbölük, ser-oda-i evvel, ser-oda-i sânî gibi grup yöneticileri bulunuyordu. Nakkaşlar kapıkulu halkı olduğundan aynı zamanda Ordu-yı Hümâyun teşkilâtına bağlıydılar ve orduyla beraber sefere çıkar, görevlerini savaş sırasında da sürdürürlerdi. Nakkaşlara yevmiye üzerinden üç ayda bir maaş ödenir, maaş ve terakkileri maaş defterine yazılırdı. Aralarında Nakkaş Hasan Paşa gibi Enderun’da yetişip vezir pâyesi alanlar da vardı. Sarayın nakkaşlar cemaatinde bezenmesi istenen eser için yetenekli biri yoksa çarşı esnafı arasından bulunur ve ücret karşılığında çalıştırılırdı. Bayramlarda padişah, kendisi için yaptığı özel işleri getiren nakkaşı kaftan veya para vererek ödüllendirirdi. Nakkaşların tayin, maaş, terfi, çıkış gibi işlemlerinden ve yapılması istenen işin resmen ilgili sanatçıya verilmesinden hazinedarbaşı sorumluydu.
Evliya Çelebi “esnâf-ı nakkāşân-ı musavverân” dediği nakkaşların, resim yapmanın şeriatça yasaklanması sebebiyle pîrlerinin bulunmadığını söyler ve bunların kendi zamanında dört dükkân, kırk nefer olduklarını belirterek en ünlülerinin sanatlarındaki başarılarını mübalağalı üslûbuyla anlatır (Seyahatnâme, I, 610). Türk sanatı tarihinde Nigârî, Bayram b. Dervîş, Kara Memi, Şahkulu, Velî Can, Pîr Ahmed b. İskender; Osmanlı tasvir sanatının klasik üslûbunu belirleyen Nakkaş Osman, Ali Nakkaş, Hasan (Paşa), Nakşî ve Levnî yaptıkları eserler bilinen nakkaş ve müzehhipler arasında isimleri en öne çıkanlardır. XIX. yüzyıl başlarında önemini tamamen kaybeden nakkaş sınıfı, 1826 tarihli bir nizamnâmede hizmetleri olmadığından kaldırılan on ocak arasında sayılmaktadır (Uzunçarşılı, Saray Teşkilâtı, s. 484).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Abdürrezzâk es-San‘ânî, el-Muṣannef , V, 474; İbn Sa‘d, eṭ-Ṭabaḳāt, III, 345; Ebü’l-Ferec el-İsfahânî, el-Eġānî (nşr. Semîr Câbir), Beyrut, ts. (Dârü’l-fikr), V, 70; Hatîb, Târîḫu Baġdâd, I, 325; Gazzâlî, İḥyâʾ (Beyrut), IV, 443; İbnü’l-Cevzî, el-Muntaẓam, VII, 151; Fahreddin er-Râzî, İʿtiḳādât (Neşşâr), s. 88; Safedî, el-Vâfî, I, XV, 261; Âlî, Menâkıb-ı Hünerverân, s. 63 vd.; Ebü’l-Fazl el-Allâmî, The Ā-īn-i Akbarī (trc. H. Blochmann), Delhi 1989, s. 113, 114, 115; Evliya Çelebi, Seyahatnâme, I, 610; Uzunçarşılı, Saray Teşkilâtı, s. 316, 463, 484; a.mlf., “Osmanlı Sarayı’nda Ehl-i Hıref (Sanatkârlar) Defteri”, TTK Belgeler, XI (1981-86), s. 23-76; Ernst Kühnel, Doğu İslâm Memleketlerinde Minyatür (trc. Suut Kemal Yetkin – Melahat Özgü), Ankara 1952, s. 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26 vd., 29, 43, 44, 48 vd.; a.mlf., “History of Miniature Painting and Drawing”, A Survey of Persian Art (ed. A. U. Pope – P. Ackermann), Tehran 1977, V, 1829 vd., 1838 vd.; Rıfkı Melûl Meriç, Türk Nakış Sanatı Tarihi Araştırmaları I: Vesîkalar, Ankara 1953, s. VI, 3 vd., 56 vd., 74-75; Th. W. Arnold, “The Origins”, A Survey of Persian Art, V, 1809 vd.; U. Monneret de Villard, “The Relations of Manihean Art to Iranian Art”, a.e., V, 1820 vd.; A. K. Das, Mughal Painting during Jahangir’s Time, Calcutta 1978, s. 28 vd., 40 vd.; Krishna Chaitanya, A History of Indian Painting Manuscript, Moghul and Deccani Traditions, New Delhi 1979, s. 39 vd.; J. Pedersen, The Arabic Book, New Jersey 1984, s. 89 vd.; Filiz Çağman, “Mimar Sinan Döneminde Sarayın Ehl-i Hıref Teşkilatı”, Mimar Sinan Dönemi Türk Mimarlığı ve Sanatı (haz. Zeki Sönmez), İstanbul 1988, s. 73-77; a.mlf., “Saray Nakkaşhanesinin Yeri Üzerine Düşünceler”, Ünsal Yücel Anısına Sempozyum Bildirileri: Sanat Tarihinde Doğudan Batıya, İstanbul 1989, s. 35-39; a.mlf., “Abdülmü’min el-Hûyî”, DİA, I, 274; Abdülhay el-Kettânî, et-Terâtîbü’l-idâriyye (Özel), II, 292; Amina Okada, Imperial Mughal Painters (trc. D. Dusinberre), Paris 1992, s. 11, 12, 14, 68 vd., 77 vd., 95 vd., 105 vd., 116 vd., 125 vd., 136 vd., 148 vd., 154 vd., 165 vd., 185 vd., 207 vd., 216 vd.; F. Banu Mahir, Osmanlı Minyatür Sanatı, İstanbul 2005, s. 17 vd., 31 vd., 39 vd., 173, 174; a.mlf., “Minyatür”, DİA, XXX, 118 vd.; Ömer Lutfi Barkan, “İstanbul Saraylarına Ait Muhasebe Defterleri”, TTK Belgeler, IX (1979), s. 70; Aykut Gürçağlar, “Nakkaşhane ve Nakkaş Kavramı”, Sanatsal Mozaik, I/8, İstanbul 1996, s. 15 vd.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2006 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 32. cildinde, 326-328 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.