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NİSYAN Skip to content Bazı dinî hükümlere etkisi sebebiyle ehliyet ârızaları arasında incelenen unutma anlamında terim.
Sözlükte “unutmak, ertelemek, bilerek veya bilmeden terketmek” anlamlarına gelen nisyân, kelimesi terim olarak sahip olunan bilginin ihtiyaç ânında akla gelmemesini ifade eder ve bu duruma bazı fıkhî sonuçlar bağlanır. Fıkıh usulünde ehliyet kavramı “şer‘î hitaba ehil ve muhatap olma” mânası esas alınarak incelendiği için hukukî açıdan ehliyeti daraltma veya ortadan kaldırma özelliği bulunmamakla birlikte ilgili kişiye nisbetle bazı hükümlerde değişiklik meydana getiren bir kısım haller “avârızü’l-ehliyye” kapsamında değerlendirilmiştir. Ehliyeti etkilesin veya etkilemesin bu durumlar kişinin iradesi dışında oluşursa “el-avârızü’s-semâviyye”, insanın irade ve çabasıyla meydana gelirse “el-avârızü’l-müktesebe” adını alır. Semavî nitelikteki avârız arasında yer alan unutma, ehliyeti daraltan veya ortadan kaldıran bir sebep olmayıp bazı dinî hükümlerde mazeret olarak kabul edilmesinden dolayı bu kapsamda ele alınmıştır.
Psikolojide en genel anlamıyla unutma hâfızada bulunan bilgilere erişilememesini ifade eder ve bunun sebepleri, daha önce öğrenilmiş bilginin artık kayıtlı olmaması yahut kayıtlı olup da o an için çağrışım ilişkilerinin kurulamaması veya zayıf olması şeklinde iki noktada toplanır. Daha önce veya daha sonra öğrenilen malzemelerin araya girmesi (“ileriye etkili ketleme, geriye etkili ketleme”) unutmayı hızlandırabilen âmiller arasında sayılır ve araya giren malzeme miktarının artıp hatırlanacak malzemeye benzerlik taşımasının unutma miktarını arttırdığı belirtilir. Psikolojide temel yaklaşıma bağlı olarak unutma teorileri değişmektedir. Meselâ çağdaş biliş psikolojisinde unutma hem duyu belleğinde sinirsel bir bozulmayla hem kısa süreli bellekte kapasite sınırlaması, hem de uzun süreli bellekte erişimin engellenmesiyle açıklanır; bunların ilk ikisinde bilgilerin tamamen kaybedildiği, üçüncüsünde ise bilginin olduğu gibi kaldığı, fakat erişim mekanizmalarındaki sorunlar yüzünden hatırlanamadığı var sayılır. Klasik psikanalizde unutma “bastırma”nın bir işlevi, Gestalt psikolojisinde bellekteki tutarlı bütünlüklerin (anlamlı bilgiler) yapısının bozulmasının bir neticesi olarak gösterilirken davranışçı ekolde pekiştirilmeyen davranışın sıklığının giderek azalması ve sonunda tamamen ortadan kalkması şeklinde açıklanır. Bazı teoriler ise bellek izlerinin kendiliğinden silikleştiğini yahut rakip bilgilerin ürettiği bellek izleri tarafından silindiğini savunur (Budak, s. 782-783).
Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de ve hadislerde nisyanla aynı kökten türeyen kelimelere ve özellikle “nesiye” fiilinin kullanımına sıkça rastlandığı gibi bazı hadislerde nisyan kelimesi de geçmektedir (M. F. Abdülbâkī, el-Muʿcem, “nsy” md.; Wensinck, el-Muʿcem, “nsy” md.). Âyetlerde Allah’ın unutmasının söz konusu olamayacağı belirtilirken (Meryem 19/64; Tâhâ 20/52) nisyan kökünden türeyen fiillerin Allah hakkında sadece “terketme”, kullar hakkında ise hem “terketme” hem de “unutma” anlamlarında kullanıldığı görülmekte, birçok âyet ve hadiste gerek soyut biçimde gerekse bazı somut durumlara ilişkin olarak kullanılan ifadelerden unutmanın dinen bir mazeret kabul edildiği anlaşılmaktadır (meselâ bk. el-Bakara 2/286; İbn Mâce, “Ṭalâḳ”, 16; Ebû Dâvûd, “Ṣalât”, 11; Kur’an’da “nisyan” ve “zikir” kavramlarının kullanımıyla ilgili bir karşılaştırma için bk. Seyyid Rızk et-Tavîl, sy. 13 [1405], s. 129-178).
Ruhî fonksiyonların en önemlisi, zihin ve fikir binasının anahtarı sayılan hâfıza olmaksızın tahayyül, hüküm, lisan ve şuurdan söz edilemez (Richet, s. 173). Fakat hâfızanın işleyişinde unutmanın doğal bir süreç olduğu dikkate alındığında hatırlama yetisi yanında unutmanın da beşerî bir görünüm ve insan için kaçınılmaz bir olgu olduğu anlaşılır. Bazı dilcilerin “insan” kelimesinin “unutma” anlamındaki “nesy” kökünden türetilmiş olduğunu belirtirken dayandıkları, İbn Abbas’a nisbet edilen ve insanın üstlendiği sorumluluğu veya kendisinden alınan sözü unutması sebebiyle bu ismi aldığına dair rivayetin (Lisânü’l-ʿArab, “ins” md.) bir yönüyle bu olguya yapılan bir vurgu anlamı taşıdığı söylenebilir. Acıların ve uğranılan kötülüklerin etkisinden kurtulmayı ve gereksiz bilgilerin ayıklanmasını sağlama açısından Allah’ın bir rahmeti sayılan nisyan, fıkıhta dinî ve hukukî sorumluluklar bağlamında mazeret kabul edilip edilmemesi yönüyle incelenmiştir.
Birçok fıkıh usulü müellifi nisyanın mahiyeti hakkında açıklama yaparken değişik nisyan tanımlarını aktarıp özellikle uyku (nevm) ve baygınlığın (iğmâ) nisyandan farklı olduğu noktalara dikkat çeker. Dil ve usul âlimlerince nisyanla zühul, sehiv ve gaflet halleri arasındaki ilişki, bilhassa sehiv-nisyan mukayesesi üzerinde durulmuş, genellikle bunların “ilm”in karşıtı olma noktasında birleştikleri belirtilirken aralarındaki farklar konusunda değişik açıklamalar yapılmıştır (dilcilerin bakışını yansıtan bir sehiv-nisyan mukayesesi için bk. Ebû Hilâl el-Askerî, s. 78). Fıkıh usulündeki anlamıyla nisyan, genelde insan için normal kabul edilen unutma halleriyle ilgili olup psikolojide patolojik unutma kapsamında sayılan durumların ortaya çıkardığı fıkhî meselelerin daha çok gaflet, iğmâ, ateh ve cünûn kavramlarına ilişkin tahliller çerçevesinde incelenmesi gerekir. Öte yandan fıkıh ve usul kitaplarında nisyanın etkisiyle ilgili olarak verilen örneklerden bir kısmının hata veya cehalet kapsamında değerlendirilmesi gereken meseleler olduğu veya farklı kavramlarla açıklanabilecek tedahüller içerdiği görülür.
Nisyanla ilgili hükümlerin teorik temeline ışık tutan tartışmalarda Hz. Peygamber’in, ümmetinden hata, unutma ve zorlandıkları şeylerin kaldırıldığını veya Allah Teâlâ’nın bunları bağışladığını belirten hadisin (İbn Mâce, “Ṭalâḳ”, 16) yorumu öncelikli bir yere sahiptir. Bu hadisin sıhhati hakkında bazı itirazlar bulunsa da (bk. HATA), birçok âyet ve hadisin ortak anlamının hata, nisyan ve ikrah hallerini dinen geçerli birer mazeret sayma noktasında birleştiği genel kabul gören bir husustur. Delâletü’l-iktizâ kuralı gereğince ümmetten kaldırılan veya bağışlananın bizâtihi hata, unutma ve ikrah olmayıp hadiste bu durumlara ilişkin sonucun kastedildiği açık sayılmakla birlikte sadece uhrevî mi yoksa hem uhrevî hem dünyevî sonucun mu kaldırıldığı hususu ihtilâflıdır. Umûmü’l-muktezâ esasını benimseyen çoğunluğa göre bu ifade her iki tür sonucu kapsar; Hanefî usulü ise anlamın uhrevî sonuçla yani günahın kaldırılmasıyla sınırlı sayılmasını gerektirir (Şemsüleimme es-Serahsî, I, 248-254; Seyfeddin el-Âmidî, II, 229-231). Hata ve özellikle başkalarının baskısıyla ilişkili bir durum olan ikrah, hayat olayları arasında karşılaşılma oranının yüksek olması yanında mahiyet ve sonuçları bakımından nisyandan önemli farklılıklar taşır ve değişik ihtimaller göz önüne alınarak fıkıhta nisyana nisbetle daha geniş incelemelere konu olur. Bu üç durum arasındaki ortak kesit ise irade ile söz veya fiil arasında dinen mâzur sayılmayı haklı kılacak ölçüde bir kopukluğun bulunması şeklinde ifade edilebilir.
Nisyanın hükümlere etkisiyle ilgili görüş ayrılıkları sadece yukarıda belirtilen usul ihtilâfına bağlı olmayıp başka deliller de dikkate alınarak her bir mesele için farklı yaklaşımlar ortaya konabilmektedir. Bununla birlikte fakihler genellikle nisyan konusunu önce bunun Allah veya kul hakkıyla ilgili olmasına göre bir ayırım yaparak inceler ve kul hakkını ilgilendiren bir meselede nisyanın etkisinin olamayacağını kabul eder. Meselâ başkasına sattığını unutarak daha önce sahibi olduğu malı telef eden kimse bunu tazminle yükümlü olur. Yine malın sahibi tarafından verilen tüketme müsaadesinin kapsamını unutup iznin sınırını aşacak şekilde tüketimde bulunan kimse bu fazlalığı tazmin etmekle mükelleftir. Bu yaklaşımın teorik temeli fıkıh usulü âlimlerinin hüküm kavramıyla ilgili analizlerinde açıklığa kavuşturulmuştur. Şöyle ki: Usulcüler hüküm tanımı yaparken kişiye yükümlülük getiren (iktizâî) veya serbestlik tanıyan (tahyîrî) hitabın yanına bir tür şartlı önermeler niteliğindeki (vaz‘î) hitabı yerleştirmek suretiyle mükellefiyet için gerekli asgari şartları (akıl ve hitabı anlama yeteneği) taşımayan kişilerin de bazı durumlarda hukuken sorumlu sayılmasına açıklama getiren bütüncül bir bakış ortaya koymuşlardır. Buna göre temyiz kudretinden yoksun olan mecnun ve aklî melekeleri yerinde olmakla birlikte hitabı anlayacak durumda olmayan nâsî (unutan) vb. kişilerin bazı sonuçların şer‘an belirli sebeplere bağlandığı hallerde sorumlu tutulmaları, meselâ fiil ehliyetinden yoksun bulunan akıl hastasının başkasına verdiği zararın bazı durumlarda onun malından karşılanması bunların teklife muhatap sayılmalarına değil adalet ve maslahat gerekçesine dayanır (Tûfî, I, 180-185, 411-418). “Teklif” ile “hükümlerin vaz‘î hitapla sabit olması” kavramlarını birbirinden ayırt eden bu bakış açısı (Gazzâlî, I, 84; Seyfeddin el-Âmidî, I, 140) benzeri durumlarda Allah ve kul haklarının ayrı ayrı ele alınmasını gerektirmiş, hukuk güvenliğinin sağlanması ve objektif sorumluluk hallerinin tesbitinde önemli bir rol oynamıştır. Pezdevî, nisyan açısından Allah ve kul hakları ayırımına temas ederken Allah hakkına konu olan hükümlerde kulluğun sınanması amacının gözetildiğine, buna karşılık kul haklarının insana tanınan bir hak olması itibariyle ve insanların ihtiyaçlarının karşılanması gayesiyle saygın kabul edildiğine dikkat çeker. Abdülazîz el-Buhârî de kul haklarında imtihan amacının bulunmayışını açıklarken kulun başka bir kulun kendisine itaatini sınama hakkı bulunmadığını, insanın sahip olduğu ve herkesçe saygın kabul edilmesi gereken temel hakların özünde Allah Teâlâ’nın onları değerli saymasının yattığını belirtir. Bunun pratik sonuçlarından biri de Allah hakları kapsamındaki konularda mazeret sayılabilen nisyanın kul haklarıyla ilgili meselelerde zarar gören tarafın sübût bulmuş haklarının zayi olmasına yol açacak bir gerekçe olarak kabul edilmemesidir (Kenzü’l-vüṣûl, IV, 276; Keşfü’l-esrâr, IV, 276). Dolayısıyla bazı durumların dinî görevler açısından mazeret sayılması yaklaşımının kul hakları alanına taşırılması insanların can ve mallarının masuniyeti ilkesiyle çatıştığı için nisyan vb. durumların hükümlere etkisi hukūkullah alanıyla sınırlandırılmıştır. Buna göre kişinin Allah hakları çerçevesinde kalan ve suç teşkil eden bir fiili yasak olduğunu unutarak işlemesi durumunda nisyanın geçerli mazeret sayılması gerektiği düşünülebilirse de yasaklığın hatırlanmasına imkân vermeyecek biçimde ve tabii sâiklerle yasak fiile yönelme hali çok nâdir olduğundan nisyanın ilke olarak ceza hükümlerine tesir etmeyeceği kabul edilmiştir. Yeni müslüman olmuş bir kimsenin şiddetli susuzluk durumunda yasak olduğunu unutarak şarap içmesi örneğinde görüldüğü gibi bazı istisnaî durumlardan söz edilebilirse de kişinin suçu unutarak işlediğini ispat etmesi hayli zor bir durum olduğundan ceza hukuku alanında nisyanın etkisinin son derece sınırlı kalması kaçınılmazdır (Abdülkādir Ûdeh, I, 439-440). Öte yandan hukūkullah kapsamında yer alan ceza hükümlerinin de sosyal disiplini sağlama amacında diğerleriyle kesiştiği dikkate alındığında bunların kul haklarından tamamen bağımsız düşünülemeyeceği açıktır.
Allah haklarıyla ilgili hususlarda nisyanın etkisi, yukarıda değinilen hadisin yorumuna ilişkin temel yaklaşımın yanı sıra her bir olayın özelliği ve o mesele hakkındaki delillere göre çözüme bağlanmaktadır. Bununla birlikte Hanefî usulcülerinin bu konudaki sonuçları kişinin kusurlu olup olmayışını esas alan teorik bir izaha kavuşturmaya çalıştıkları görülür. Buna göre nisyan iki kısma ayrılır: a) Beşer olmanın tabii sonucu sayılabilecek unutma ki Pezdevî bunu “aslî nisyan” olarak niteler. Bu tür nisyan dinî hükümlerde geçerli bir mazeret olabilir. b) Kişinin kendi kusuru sonucu içine düştüğü unutma. Bu nevi nisyan geçerli bir mazeret olarak kabul edilmez; zira mükellef hatırlamayı sağlayacak sebeplere tevessül etmediği için kınanma ve muahezeyi hak etmiştir. Fakihler, kusurun bulunup bulunmadığını belirlerken unutmanın hangi şartlarda gerçekleştiğine ilişkin tahliller yaparlar ve özellikle “galebe” kavramı üzerinde durarak unutmanın yoğun biçimde bulunacağı halleri ayırt etmeye çalışırlar. Bunlardan çıkan sonuç, objektif olarak dinî vecîbenin özellikleri dikkate alındığında yapılması ve yapılmaması gerekeni hatırlatacak şartlar içinde gerçekleşen fiillerde unutmanın mazeret sayılmaması, aksi halde mazeret kabul edilmesi şeklinde özetlenebilir. Meselâ unutarak namazın herhangi bir aşamasında konuşmak, namazın ka‘de dışındaki bir bölümünde namazdan çıkış selâmı vermek, ihramlı veya itikâfta iken ihram veya itikâf yasaklarını unutarak ihlâl etmek geçerli bir mazeret sayılmamış, buna karşılık hayvanı boğazlama sırasında besmelenin unutulması halinde hayvanın etinin yenebileceğine, namazda ilk oturuşun sonunda unutarak selâm verilmesi durumunda namazın bozulmayacağına hükmedilmiştir (Pezdevî, IV, 276-277; Abdülazîz el-Buhârî, IV, 276-277). Karâfî de cehl ile nisyan arasındaki farka değinirken kişinin öğrenme çabası ortaya koyarak bilgisizliğe çare bulabileceğini, unutmanın ise insanı çaresiz bırakacak şekilde baskı altına alan bir durum olduğunu belirtir (el-Furûḳ, II, 148-149).
Nisyanla ilgili değerlendirmelerde esas alınan diğer bir kriter, emir ve nehiy ayırımıdır. Her iki grup fiilde unutma uhrevî sorumluluğu düşürmekle birlikte yapılması istenenlerle (me’mûrât) kaçınılması istenenler (menhiyyât) arasında dünyevî sonuç bakımından şöyle bir fark vardır: Birinci tür fiillerde nisyan yükümlülüğü düşüren bir mazeret sayılmaz; zira emredileni terkeden kimse, hatırladığında bunu yerine getirerek eksikliğini telâfi edebilir. Meselâ abdest almayı unutarak namaz kılan veya namazda rükûu unutan kimse bu sebeple günahkâr sayılmazsa da namazını şart ve rükünlerini taşır biçimde yeniden kılması gerekir. Nitekim Resûl-i Ekrem unutarak namaz vaktini geçiren kimsenin hatırladığında o namazı kılmasını istemiştir (Buhârî, “Mevâḳīt”, 37; Müslim, “Mesâcid”, 311, 314-316). İkinci gruptaki bir fiili işleyen ise onu telâfi edemez, zira varlık kazanmış bir fiili ortadan kaldırması mümkün değildir; dolayısıyla mâzur kabul edilir. Bu ayırımla ilgili başka bir izah şöyledir: Emri yapmaktan maksat sevap ümididir, fiil işlenmeyince sevap beklenemez. Nehiyde ise yasağı ihlâl etme sebebiyle cezaya mâruz kalma endişesi söz konusudur; unutanın fiili bir yasağı ihlâl etme anlamı taşımadığına göre bu endişenin gerekçesi de ortadan kalkmış olmaktadır (İzzeddin İbn Abdüsselâm, II, 5-6; Yahyâ b. Hüseyin el-Fîfî, s. 37; M. Revvâs Kal‘acî, II, 1884).
Fıkıh literatüründe nisyanın dünyevî sonuca etkisi konusunun en yoğun tartışıldığı mesele unutarak yeme ve içmenin orucu bozmaması hükmünün (Buhârî, “Ṣavm”, 26; Müslim, “Ṣıyâm”, 171) başka olaylara taşınması hususudur. Hanefîler, orucun rüknü olan imsak oruç yasaklarından birinin işlenmesiyle ihlâle uğradığı halde nasla (Hz. Peygamber’in hadisi) orucun bozulmamış kabul edildiğini, genel kurala uymayan bu hükmün kıyas yoluyla hata ve ikrah gibi durumlara taşınamayacağını, Şâfiîler ise hata ve ikrah durumlarında da kasıt bulunmadığı için orucun bozulmayacağına hükmedilmesi gerektiğini savunurlar (tartışmanın ayrıntıları için bk. Şemsüleimme es-Serahsî, II, 149, 150, 153-155; HATA. Bu hükmün kıyasa aykırı olmayıp namaz, hac ve yemin gibi konularda benzerlerinin bulunduğu hakkında açıklamalar için bk. İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, II, 50-53). Buna karşılık Mâlikîler, unutarak yiyip içenin günahkâr olmayacağını kabul etmekle birlikte bu durumda kazâ gerekmeyeceğine ilişkin rivayeti sahih saymadıkları veya hadisin nâfile oruçlarla ilgili olduğunu düşündükleri için genel kurala göre orucu bozulmuş ve kazâsının da gerekli olduğuna hükmetmişlerdir. Hanefîler’in oruçta nisyan için konan hükmü kural dışı saymalarına rağmen yukarıda değinilen kusur kriterinin belirlenmesinde bu örnekten önemli ölçüde yararlandıkları, orucun yeme-içmeden engelleyecek bir özelliğinin bulunmayıp aksine insanın aç ve susuzken unutarak böyle bir yönelişe geçmesinin doğal olduğunu, fakat namaz kılan kişinin konuşmadan uzak durmayı sağlayan bir durumda bulunduğunu belirterek oruçta nisyanın mazeret sayılmasını mâkul gösteren bir izah yaptıkları görülür. Unutarak konuşmanın namazı bozup bozmayacağı ihtilâfı ise oruca kıyastan çok konuya ilişkin özel delillere dayanır (Kâsânî, I, 233-234; İbn Kudâme, II, 444-449; nisyanın etkisiyle ilgili başlıca fürû-i fıkıh meseleleri için bk. Yahyâ b. Hüseyin el-Fîfî, s. 40-225).
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2007 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 33. cildinde, 144-147 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.