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Tarih öncesi dönemlerden beri savaş ve av aleti olarak kullanılan ok ve yay Eski Mezopotamya ve Anadolu’da güç sembolü olarak görülür; farklı uygarlıklara göre baştanrı ile savaş ve av tanrılarının alâmetidir. Atıcılıkla ilgili bazı kaynaklarda yay ve okun kullanımı Hz. Âdem’le başlatılmıştır. Onun, ektiği tohumları yiyen kargalarla mücadelede âciz kalınca Allah’a şikâyette bulunduğu, Cebrâil’in kendisine ok ve yay getirerek kullanmasını öğrettiği ve ardından “nuş âb” veya “nuşşa abba” (kargayı bu okla kov) dediği, böylece Arapça’daki nüşşâb (ok) kelimesinin ortaya çıktığı rivayet edilir; Süryânîce ab “karga” abba ise “ok” demektir. Arapça’da okun bir adı da nidâldir. Eski Ahid’de Hz. İsmâil’in iyi bir okçu olduğu söylenir (Tekvîn, 21/20); Hz. Peygamber de bundan bahisle ok atan ashabını dedelerine özenmeleri için teşvik etmiştir (Buhârî, “Cihâd”, 7; “Feżâʾilü’ṣ-ṣaḥâbe”, 48; “Enbiyâʾ”, 12; “Menâḳıb”, 4). Arap yayının bu geleneğin devamı sayıldığı, Acem yayının ise ilk defa Nümrud b. Ken‘ân tarafından yapıldığı belirtilir (Kitâb fî ilmi’n-nüşşâb, s. 205). Okçuluğu fürûsiyenin (süvarilik) dört dalından biri sayan İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye diğerlerinden daha güçlü ve üstün olduğunu söylediği Türk yayını tanıtır (el-Fürûsiyye, s. 433, 440). Herodotos, Ahamenî Hükümdarı Xerxes’in değişik milletlerden oluşan ordusunu anlatırken Araplar’ın hayli büyük, kurulmadığı zaman tersine dönen yaylarından, Habeşler’in palmiye fidanından yapılmış yaylarından ve oklarının sert taştan (çakmak taşı) yapılmış sivri temrenlerinden, Persler’in güçlü yaylarıyla kamış oklarından ve Sakalar’ın kendilerine has oklarından söz eder (Târih, s. 293, 294). Onun verdiği bilgiye göre Persler’de beş yaşından itibaren çocuklara ata binme, ok atma ve doğruluk öğretilirdi (a.g.e., s. 54).
Hz. Peygamber, Kur’an’ın düşmana karşı güç hazırlamayı emreden âyetinde geçen (el-Enfâl 8/60) “kuvvet” kelimesini “remy” (-ok- atmak) fiiliyle yorumlamıştır (Müsned, IV, 156; Müslim, “İmâre”, 168; İbn Mâce, “Cihâd”, 19; Ebû Dâvûd, “Cihâd”, 24; Tirmizî, “Tefsîr”, 9). Bu sebeple okçuluk dinî bir hüviyet ve özel bir önem kazanmış, bir rivayete göre Resûl-i Ekrem çocuklara okuma yazma ve yüzme yanında atıcılık öğretilmesini de babalık görevleri arasında saymıştır (Ahmed b. Süleyman el-Beyhakī, X, 15). O dönemde çocuklar, ok tâlimi için ucunda temren yerine çamur topağı veya çekirdeği çıkarılmış hurma bulunan küçük oklar kullanıyordu. Hz. Peygamber ayrıca bir okun üç kişinin cennete girmesine vesile olacağını (yapan, atan, atılmak üzere veren) ve atıcılığın kendisine binicilikten daha sevimli geldiğini söylemiş (Müsned, IV, 144, 146, 148, 154; Ebû Dâvûd, “Cihâd”, 24; Tirmizî, “Cihâd”, 11), atıcılığı öğrenip bırakmayı nimete karşı nankörlük sayarken (Müsned, IV, 148) okçuların yarış sırasında, “Vallahi isabet ettirdim; billâhi geçtim” şeklinde yaptıkları yeminlerinin kefâret gerektirmediğini belirtmiştir (Taberânî, er-Ravżü’d-dânî ile’l-Muʿcemi’ṣ-ṣaġīr, II, 271; Süleyman b. Ahmed et-Taberânî, s. 21-22, 29, 30). Resûl-i Ekrem ayrıca ok atma yarışlarını meşrû gördüğü eğlenceler arasında saymış (Müsned, IV, 146) ve Taberânî’nin bir rivayetine göre üzerine gam çöken kişinin yayını kuşanıp onunla kederini gidermesini tavsiye etmiştir (er-Ravżü’d-dânî ile’l-Muʿcemi’ṣ-ṣaġīr, II, 271). Hz. Peygamber, Uhud Gazvesi’nde elinde birkaç yay eskiten Sa‘d b. Ebû Vakkās’a, “At ey Sa‘d! Anam babam sana feda olsun!” diye seslenmiştir (İbn Sa‘d, III, 141-142).
Yay (kavs, kemân) tek parça veya birleşik elemanlardan oluşmuş, ortada yer alan kabzasının iki tarafında simetrik biçimde eğilmiş iki ucu arasına kiriş gerilen bir alettir. Ele geçmiş en eski örnekler tek parçadır. Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Mukaddes Emanetler Dairesi’nde bulunan (nr. 21/69), “kavs-ı saâdet” (kemân-ı Peygamberî) denilen 118 cm. uzunluğundaki yay bir kamış cinsinden yapılmıştır ve tek parçadır. Benî Kaynukā‘ Gazvesi’nden sonra Hz. Peygamber’in payına “beydâ” ve “safrâ” adında ikisi kayın ağacından, “ravhâ’” adlı bir diğeri cinsi belirtilmeyen bir ağaçtan yapılmış toplam üç yay düşmüştü (a.g.e., I, 489); sonuncuya ok atarken çıkardığı sesten dolayı “ketûm” da denildiği anlaşılmaktadır (krş. a.g.e., II, 29; İbnü’l-Esîr, IV, 259). Araplar’ın tek ahşabın yanı sıra iki ahşabın birleştirilmesiyle meydana getirilen, sinir ve boynuzla güçlendirilmiş yaylar kullandığı bilinmektedir. Bunlardan ilk ikisi daha çok bedevîler, üçüncüsü yerleşik halk tarafından tercih ediliyordu (Latham-Paterson, s. 10).
Orta Asya kurganlarında bulunan en eski yay kalıntılarının 140-160 cm. uzunluğunda olduğu, boynuz ve sinir gibi organik maddelerle güçlendirildiği tesbit edilmiştir (Ögel, s. 97, 103 -104, 160). Yayların cinsine göre terkibinde belirli oranlarda ağaç, boynuz, sinir ve tutkal kullanılıyordu. Yay kirişleri Osmanlılar’da çok katlı ibrişimden yapılır ve “çile” adıyla da bilinirdi. Okların arka kısmında çileye takılan kertiğe “gez” denir, gezden itibaren gövde baş, boğaz, göbek, göğüs, baldır ve ayak bölümlerine ayrılırdı. Ok gövdeleri ahşap veya kamıştan yapılır, çam, diş budak, gürgen gibi hafif ve sert ağaçlar tercih edilirdi. Kayın ağacı hem ok hem yay yapımında yaygın biçimde kullanılırdı. Ok yapımı çok uzun zaman alan bir işti. Ahşap fırınlanıp rutubetsiz bir depoda uzun süre bekletilir ve esnemesini önleyecek birtakım işlemlerden geçirilirdi. Okların ayak üstüne düşmesini ve düzgün bir şekilde gitmesini sağlamak için arka kısmına genellikle kuğu, kerkenez, karga veya güvercin tüylerinden yapılan ve “yelek” adı verilen bir kuyruk takılırdı. Dede Korkut Kitabı’nda üç yelekli kayın oklardan söz edilir (Dedem Korkudun Kitabı, s. 29). Osmanlılar’da okların kullanıldığı amaca göre tirkeş (savaş), tâlimhâne, puta (hedef), menzil (pişrev, yeksüvâr, zergerdân), meşk (heki, karabatak, azmayiş), ateş, tatar okları gibi türleri vardı. Menzil okları kendi aralarında ayrıca kiriş-endâm, tarz-ı hâs, şem‘-endâm gibi kısımlara ayrılırdı. Okun atışını kolaylaştırmak, elin kaymasını önlemek için yayın kabzası üzerine bir muşamba sarılır ve sağ elin baş parmağına yaralanmayı önleyecek “zıhgir” denilen yüzük, bileğe de siper takılırdı. Oklar omuza asılan ve sadak, tirkeş, ok torbası, kubur tabir edilen özel bir kapta taşınırdı.
Araplar ok atma yarışlarına “münâdale” adı verirler ve bunu genellikle hedefe isabet ettirme ve uzun mesafe olmak üzere iki dalda yaparlardı. Osmanlılar’da okçuluğun belli bir disiplini vardı. Kemankeş olabilmek, yani bu dalda icâzet alıp okçular siciline kaydedilmek için hedefleri vurmada belli bir maharet ve pişrev okunu en az 900, azmayiş okunu 800 geze atmak gerekirdi; okçuluk dilinde buna “ahz-ı kabza” denilir ve icâzetini alan kemankeş “tâlib-i menzil” veya “müstahıkk-ı menzil” diye anılırdı. Menzilde rekor kırmak ve taş diktirmek belirli kaidelere bağlıydı (Kahraman, s. 409 vd.; Yücel, s. 109 vd.).
Okçuluk ve fürûsiye üzerine yazılan eserler atış teknikleri meşhur olan Ebû Hâşim el-Bâverdî, Tâhir-i Belhî ve İshak er-Raffâ adlı üç ustadan söz eder (Kitâb fî ilmi’n-nüşşâb, s. 206). İbn Kayyim de atış teknikleri hakkında bilgi verirken Ebû Muhammed Abdurrahman b. Ahmed et-Taberî’nin el-Vâżıḥ fi’r-remy ve’n-nüşşâb isimli eserinden (TSMK, Revan Köşkü, nr. 1933) bazı iktibaslar yapmış ve adı geçen üç kişiye yer yer atıfta bulunmuştur (el-Fürûsiyye, s. 448, 451, 454 vd., 472, 477). Osmanlı kemankeş ve tîrendâzları ok meydanına yarışma veya imtihan için geldiklerinde bir Fâtiha, üç İhlâs okur, salavat getirir, kemankeşlerin pîri sayılan Sa‘d b. Ebû Vakkās ile beraber ok atmada mahir bazı sahâbîleri anar, yukarıda adı geçen üç usta ve el-Vâżıḥ yazarı Taberî ile geçmiş kemankeşler için dua ederdi (Mustafa Kânî b. Muhammed, s. 50). Okçular havadaki oku vurma, hedefteki oku gezinden vurma, at üstünde dörtnala giderken her yönde hedef vurma, oku en uzağa atma, havaya atılan veya hareket halindeki halkanın içinden ok geçirme, çelik levha yahut birkaç kat fil derisini delme gibi birçok dalda yarışırdı.
Osmanlı ordusunda tüfeğin yaygınlaşmasına kadar ok çok etkili bir savaş aracı olarak kullanılmıştır. Daha sonra da tâlimhânede ve adını bu etkinlikten alan Okmeydanı’nda kapıkulu yeniçerileri ok tâlimlerini sürdürmüştür (bk. OKMEYDANI). Tâlimhâne müdürünün (tâlimhâneci) solaklara ve kemankeşlere okçuluk tâlim ettirmesi kanun gereğiydi. Padişahın muhafızları arasında kemankeşlerin önemli bir yeri vardı. Muharebe meydanlarında 400 kadar kemankeş padişahın çevresini kuşatırdı. Osmanlı ordusunun ok ve yay tedariki Cebeci Ocağı tarafından görülür, oklar Gelibolu ve İstanbul’daki bu işle uğraşan esnaf tarafından yapılırdı. Evliya Çelebi’nin verdiği bilgiye göre İstanbul’da okçu esnafı 200 dükkânda 300 (Seyahatnâme, I, 277), yaycılar ise 200 dükkânda 500 (a.g.e., I, 276) kişiden oluşmaktaydı. Ok temrenleri Edirne’de yapılırdı (Uzunçarşılı, Kapukulu Ocakları, II, 13-14). Osmanlı bahriyesinde de okçuluk önemliydi. Düşman yelkenlilerine ateş oku atmak eskiden beri uygulanan bir usuldü. 883 (1478) tarihli bir belgede bir mavna ve on dokuz kadırgadan oluşan donanmada değişik topların yanında on sekiz sandık ok ve 822 kabza kemandan söz edilir (Uzunçarşılı, Merkez-Bahriye, s. 513). Osmanlı askerî teşkilâtının alâmetleri arasında ok ve yay da bulunmaktadır (Marsigli, II, lv. XXI). Daha önce Selçuklular’ın mensup olduğu Üçoklar’dan Kınık boyunun damgasının Reşîdüddin’e göre ok olduğu, Selçuklu sultanlarının mektuplarına ok ve yay işareti, tahtlarının yanına da yay ve ok dolu sadak koydukları bilinmekte ve bayraklarının üstünde ok ve yay alâmetinin bulunduğu tahmin edilmektedir (DİA, V, 249). Ok yay Grek-Roma mitolojisinde aşk tanrısı Eros’un alâmeti iken Türk edebiyatında sevgilinin kirpikleri ve bakışları oka, ayrılığının acısı ok yarasına ve kaşları genellikle yaya benzetilir. Ok atmanın âdâbı, menziller ve okçulara dair bilgi veren eserler genel olarak “kavsnâme” adıyla anılır (bk. KAVSNÂME).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA İbnü’l-Esîr, en-Nihâye, IV, 259; Müsned, IV, 144, 146, 148, 154, 156; Buhârî, “Cihâd”, 7, “Feżâʾilü’ṣ-ṣaḥâbe”, 48, “Enbiyâʾ”, 12, “Menâḳıb”, 4; Müslim, “İmâre”, 168; İbn Mâce, “Cihâd”, 19; Ebû Dâvûd, “Cihâd”, 24; Tirmizî, “Tefsîr”, 9, “Cihâd”, 11; İbn Sa‘d, eṭ-Ṭabaḳāt, I, 489; II, 29, 40, 41, 47; III, 141-142; Taberânî, el-Muʿcemü’l-kebîr (nşr. Hamdî Abdülmecîd es-Selefî), Beyrut 1406/1986, X, 173; a.mlf., er-Ravżü’d-dânî ile’l-Muʿcemi’ṣ-ṣaġīr (nşr. M. Şekûr Mahmûd el-Hâc Emrîr), Beyrut 1405/1985, II, 271; Süleyman b. Ahmed et-Taberânî ve “Fadlu’r-Remy ve Ta’lîmih” Adlı Cüz’ü (haz. Müjdat Uluçam, yüksek lisans tezi, 1990), MÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Metin, 3 vd., 21, 22, 29-30; Ahmed b. Süleyman el-Beyhakī, es-Sünenü’l-kübrâ, Haydarâbâd 1355, X, 13, 14, 15; Herodotos, Târih (trc. Perihan Kuturman), İstanbul 1973, s. 54, 118, 293, 294; İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, el-Fürûsiyye (nşr. Ebû Ubeyde Meşhûr b. Hasan b. Selmân), Hâil 1417/1996, s. 91, 116, 117, 118, 125 vd., 136 vd., 185 vd., 318, 319, 354 vd., 358 vd., 383 vd., 430 vd., 433, 435, 440, 441 vd., 448 vd., 451, 454 vd., 472, 477; Dedem Korkudun Kitabı (haz. Orhan Şaik Gökyay), İstanbul 2000, s. 1, 18, 29, 50, 91, 121, CCCLIX-CCCLXII; Kitâb fî İlmi’n-nüşşâb (nşr. ve trc. Kurtuluş Öztopçu), İstanbul 2002, s. 205, 206, 207, 212 vd., 217 vd.; Evliya Çelebi, Seyahatnâme (Dağlı), I, 276, 277; L. F. Marsigli, L’état militaire de l’Empire ottoman, Graz 1972, II, 10, 35, lv. XXI; Şeyh Galib, Dîvan , Bulak 1252, s. 110; İbn Erenboğa ez-Zerdkâş, Kitâbü’l-Esliha, Frankfurt 1424/2004, s. 107-108; Mustafa Kânî b. Muhammed, Telhîsu resâili’r-rümât, İstanbul 1263, s. 4 vd., 19, 29, 34 vd., 50, 72 vd., 82, 92 vd., 114 vd., 128 vd., 176, 177 vd. 186, 187, 188, 197; Cevad Paşa, Târîh-i Askerî-i Osmânî, İstanbul 1297, s. 130 vd.; Uzunçarşılı, Kapukulu Ocakları, I, 218, 219, 332, 333; II, 3, 4, 13-14, 178; a.mlf., Merkez-Bahriye, s. 513; G. Jobes, Dictionary of Mythology Folklore and Symbols, New York 1962, I, 129, 130; J. D. Latham – W. F. Paterson, Saracen Archery, London 1970, s. 6, 7, 10, 18, 19, 24, 34 vd., 41-42, 71, 80, 81, 82, 83, 96-97, 104, 107, 130 vd.; Abdülhay el-Kettânî, et-Terâtîbü’l-idâriyye (Özel), II, 85; Âtıf Kahraman, Osmanlı Devletinde Spor, Ankara 1995, s. 233 vd., 409 vd., 411, 414, 419 vd.; Bahaeddin Ögel, İslâmiyetten Önce Türk Kültür Tarihi, Ankara 1998, s. 97, 103-104, 160; Ünsal Yücel, Türk Okçuluğu, Ankara 1999, s. 9 vd., 29, 36 vd., 55 vd., 99, 109 vd., 246 vd., 268 vd., 284, 286, 288 vd.; Osman Turan, “Eski Türklerde Okun Hukukî Bir Sembol Olarak Kullanılması”, TTK Belleten, IX/35 (1945), s. 306 vd.; W. E. Kaegi, “Anadolu’nun Türkler Tarafından Fethine Okçuluğun Katkısı”, TİD, XVI (2001), s. 239-253; A. Boudot-Lamotte, “Ḳaws”, EI2 (İng.), IV, 795 vd.; C. Schoy, “al-Sahm”, a.e., VIII, 842-843; Orhan F. Köprülü, “Bayrak”, DİA, V, 249.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2007 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 33. cildinde, 333-335 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.