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PAPİRÜS Skip to content Eskiçağ ve Ortaçağ boyunca Ön Asya’da ve Batı’da kullanılan yazı malzemesi.
Anavatanı Mısır olan papirüs (eski Yunanca’da papuros) maydanozgiller familyasından 3-4 m. yüksekliğinde bir bitkinin (Cyperus Papyrus Linnaei) adıdır. Nil deltasında yetişen papirüs milâttan önce III. binyıldan itibaren kullanılmaya başlanmış, özellikle milâttan önce VI. – milâttan sonra IV. yüzyıllar arasında Akdeniz çevresinde yaygınlaşmış, yazı malzemesi olarak palmiye yaprağı, ağaç kabukları, kurşun levhalar, keten ve bal mumu kaplı levhaların yerini almış, Arap fetihleriyle Mısır’dan yayılarak IX. yüzyıla kadar kullanılmıştır. Sandalet, ip, hasır, gemi yelkeni ve lamba fitili yapımında da faydalanılan papirüsün Mısır bataklıkları dışında Suriye ve Fırat nehri yakınlarında yetiştiği belirtilmektedir.
Milâttan önce 2500 yılından itibaren Mısır eski krallık dönemi duvar resimleriyle antik kaynaklardan papirüs kâğıt imalâtı hakkında bilgi edinmek mümkündür. Buna göre bitkinin özü çizilerek çıkarılır, gövdesi tabakalara ayrılır. En iyi kâğıt bitkinin orta tabakalarından yapılır, kabuğa yakın olanlar daha aşağı kalitededir. Kesilen papirüs tabakaları birbirine ters yönde üst üste yerleştirilir. Bu iki yönlü tabaka dövülerek veya preslenerek bitki öz suyu yardımıyla kaynaştırılır ve düz bir yüzey elde edilir. Uçları kesilerek eşitlenir. Elde edilen yaprakların ince ve beyaz olanı en iyi kalitede kâğıttır. Bunlar rulonun başına, diğerleri sonuna konur. Yatay olan tabakaların bulunduğu yüze “recto” (ön yüz), dikey olanlarına “verso” (arka yüz) denir. Bir ruloda birbirine yapıştırılmış ortalama yirmi tabaka kâğıt bulunur. Papirüs kâğıdının yüzeyi mürekkebi daha iyi alabilmesi ve dayanıklı olması için sünger taşı, fildişi, deniz kabukları veya abanozla cilâlanıp düzleştirilir. Yatay lifli ön yüze kamış kalemle daha iyi yazılır. Kâğıt nemli iken zamk sürülerek tokmaklanır ve kırışıklıkları giderilir, küflenmesini önlemek amacıyla zamka sirke eklenebilir, su ile ıslatılmış ekmek yumuşaklığı sağlar. Kâğıdı zararlılardan korumak için safran ve sedir yağına bulamak gerekir.
Papirüs bitkisinden elde edilen kâğıtların işlenmesiyle oluşan ve üzerine çeşitli metinler yazılan kitap şeklindeki rulolara Eski Yunanlılar “tomas, biblion, kulindros”, Latinler ise “volumen” derlerdi. Milâttan önce VI-IV. yüzyıllara ait antik vazolar üzerinde bu ruloların tasvirleri mevcuttur. Eldeki kaynaklar ve buluntulara göre, yapıştırılan rulonun yaprakları kesilerek eşitlendikten sonra “umbilicus” adı verilen çubuğa sarılarak rulo yapılır, böylece açılıp kapanması sağlanırdı. Her rulo bir cilt oluşturuyordu. Meselâ Epikuros’un 300 ciltlik eseri 300 rulo idi. Rulonun ilk yaprağına “protokollon”, son yaprağa “eskhatokollon” denirdi. Yaprağın ilk sütununda yazarın adı, eserin konusu, kitabın adı, numarası ve cildi bulunur ve bu kısma “epigraphe, titulus, index” gibi adlar verilirdi. Bergama ve İskenderiye gramercileri kitap boyuna standart getirmiştir. Rulo standart olarak yirmi yaprak iken bazan daha az, bazan da daha çok yapraklı olabiliyordu. İskenderiye döneminde pek çok eser ciltlere yani tek tek rulolara bölünmüş, bunlara “tomos (tomus)” denmiş ve alfabenin harfleriyle gösterilmiştir. Zamanla papirüsten yapılan rulonun her iki yüzüne metinler yazılmaya başlanmış ve buna “opisthographoi” adı verilmiştir.
Rulo kitap sayfaları sütunlar halinde yazılıyordu. Metin soldan başlar, sağ sütunda biterdi. Kenar başlıklarına atlanmış bilgiler, yorumlar, notlar ek yazı veya kenar notu olarak konuyordu. Milâttan önce III. yüzyıldan itibaren yazıda bazı kısaltmalara gidilmiştir. Milâttan önce I. yüzyıldan itibaren işaret ve aksanlar konarak doğru telaffuzlar ve cümle ayırımları belirlenmiştir. Satır başları ve tiyatro konuşmalarında çengel kullanılmış ve paragraflar ayırt edilmiştir. Papirüs rulo kitapta konu adları ve başlıkları kırmızı mürekkeple yazılırdı. Rulonun sonuncu sütununun altında yer alan “kolophon”da eserin adı, yaprak sayısı, sütunlar ve satırların sayısı yazılırdı. Ayrıca müstensih, kitapçı, satıcı ve alıcı için bilgi verilerek kitabın satış değeri belirlenirdi. Papirüse yazarken yapılan hata pön süngeriyle silinirdi. Bazan papirüs üzerindeki yazı kazınarak yenisi yazılırdı. Ancak silme işlemi düzeltme için değil sahtekârlık amacıyla yapılıyordu.
Eski Mısır papirüsleri ölüye ve sonraki hayatına ilişkin resimlerle süslenmekteydi. Daha sonra eski Yunanlılar astronomi, matematik, tıp ve tabiat bilimleriyle ilgili kitaplara çizim ve resimler koyarak metinleri açıklardı. Eukleides’in (Öklid) çizimleri Paris’teki “Eudoxus papirüsü”, Münih’te Stadt Bibliothek’te muhafaza edilen “Münih papirüsü”, Milano’daki Homeros’un eserlerinden parçalar, Viyana’daki Dioskorides’in eserleri resimli papirüs rulolarıdır. Rulo süslemek Helenistik devirde bir sanat kolu haline gelmiştir. Baştaki harfler renkliydi, ayrıca kenar süslemeleri yapılmaktaydı. Hekim Crateuas ve Dionysios Metrodoros bitkileri resimlerle açıklamış, Varro 700 ünlü kişinin biyografisini anlattığı Imagines adlı eserine bunların portelerini de koymuştur. Vitruivius’un mimari eserleri çizimlerle gösterilmiştir. Seneca cahil zenginlerin, içi yazarların porteleriyle donatılmış kitaplarından söz eder. Rulo kitap ağırlığı sebebiyle kolay açılıp okunamadığından okuyucu ortadaki “umbilicu”su dik tutar, sağ eliyle yavaş yavaş açarken okuduğu kısmı sol eliyle sararak kapatırdı.
Papirüsü milâttan önce VIII-VII. yüzyıllarda Fenikeliler ve milâttan önce I. binyılda Ârâmîler, İbrânîler ve Suriyeliler satın alıyordu. Fenike-eski Yunan deniz ticareti sayesinde milâttan önce VIII-VII. yüzyıllarda eski Yunanlılar papirüs almaya başladılar. I. Psammetik zamanında (m.ö. 663-609) papirüs ticareti gelişti ve Miletos aracılığı ile Akdeniz’e yayıldı. Helenistik devirde Pergamon, Antiokheia, Rodos, Pella gibi merkezlerde papirüse ihtiyaç artınca üretimi devlet tekeline alındı ve devlet papirüs ticaretinden kazanç sağlar hale geldi. Ptolemaios II. Philadelphos zamanında üretim arttı, fiyat ucuzladı, papirüs dağıtımı yapan bürolar açıldı. Daha sonra devlet denetiminde olmak şartıyla özel imalâthaneler kuruldu.
Roma, cumhuriyet döneminde Mısır’ın fethinin ardından papirüs ihracı arttı. Devlet kontrolündeki kâğıt satıcıları çoğaldı. Roma imparatorluk döneminde devlet tekelinde olan papirüsün dağıtımı senatonun belirlediği kişiler eliyle düzenleniyordu. İmparator Aurelius zamanında papirüs üzerindeki vergi kaldırıldı. İmparator Diocletianus döneminde papirüs imalâthanelerini devlet kiraladı. Mısır’dan gelen papirüsler Roma’daki depolarda muhafaza ediliyordu. Bu depolardan biri de Constantinopolis’te (İstanbul) idi. Mısır’dan Roma’ya milâttan önce III. yüzyıldan itibaren getirtilen papirüs dışında Roma’daki çiftlik ve imalâthanelerde de Roma bürokrasisinin ihtiyaçları için değişik kalitede papirüs üretiliyordu. Ancak en kaliteli kâğıtlar Mısır deltasının papirüslerinden yapılanlardı.
Mısır’da milâttan önce III. binyıldan sonrasına ait papirüse yazılmış belge ve kitaplar arasında Vezir Imhotep’in eseri, Ptahhotep’in özdeyişleri ve “Prisse papirüsü” gibi eski krallık dönemi kalıntıları sayılabilir. Thrabes’te bulunan “Ölüler Kitabı”, “Piramit Metinleri”, milâttan önce X-VIII. yüzyıllardan kalan “Kehanet Buyrultuları” ve mumyalama metinleri de bunlara eklenmelidir. Orta imparatorluktan sonra (m.ö. 2000’lerde) Mısır’da matematik, tıp, astronomi gibi bilimler gelişmişti. Thabes’te bulunan Rhind matematik papirüsü (m.ö. yaklaşık 1600), XVI. sülâle zamanından kâtip Iahmes’in yazdığı aritmetik ve geometri problemlerini içeren papirüs siyah ve kırmızı mürekkeple yazılan örneklerdir. Firavun Neferhare’nin (ö. m.ö. 2460) mezarındaki malzeme envanteri ve armağan listesi papirüse yazılmış belgelerdir. Hukukî belgeler arasında zikredilebilecek Rollin papirüsü (m.ö. 1160) ve satış, ödünç verme, kiralama, evlenme, evlât edinme gibi sözleşmeler de papirüs buluntular arasında yer almaktadır. Bu çeşitli belgeler Nu, Ani, Hunefer, Haris, Wilbur papirüsleri adları ile British Museum’da ve Louvre gibi müzelerde korunmaktadır. Mısır’a özgü son papirüs I. Psammetik zamanına (m.ö. 663-609) tarihlenmektedir.
Mısır’da Antik Yunan ve Roma eserleri de bulunmuştur. Çoğu Helenistik ve Roma dönemine ait bu eserlerin incelenip yorumlanmasıyla papiroloji bilimi doğmuştur. Papirolojinin konusunu milâttan önce 332 – milâttan sonra 642 tarihleri arasına ait buluntular oluşturur. Dünyanın çeşitli müzelerine, koleksiyonlarına ve üniversitelerine dağılmış olan Mısır, eski Yunan ve Roma’ya ait Antikçağ eserleri incelenerek dönemin sosyoekonomik yapısı, hukuk tarihi, din tarihi ve klasik filoloji için birinci elden kaynaklar ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Ayrıca bunların Ortaçağ kopyaları da ele geçmiştir.
İngiliz araştırmacıları B. P. Grenfell ve A. S. Hunt, Oksyrhynkhosk şehrinde 1855’te başladıkları kazılarda Aeskylos, Sophokles, Euripides ve Aristophanes’in tiyatrolarıyla Pindaros, Sappho ve Bakklydes’in şiirlerini bulmuşlardır. Onları Tebtunis’te (Güney Feyyûm) Ptolemaioslar dönemine tarihlenen resmî belgeler izlemiştir. Ayrıca Karanis (Feyyûm), Ebû Sîr el-Melek, el-Hibâ, Hermapolis, Aphroditopolis, Edfu, Syene ve Elephantine’de edebî eserlerle çeşitli papirüs kitaplar bulunmuştur. Milâttan sonra II. yüzyıla tarihlenen Feyyûm buluntuları arasında maliye gelirlerini gösteren Gnomon adlı bir el kitabı da vardır. Akhim’de Aristo’nun Atinalılar’ın Devleti, Athenaeus’un Deipnosophistai, Kallimakk’ın Aitia ve Iambi adlı eseriyle Alkman’ın eserleri ele geçmiştir.
F. Petrie 1800’lü yıllarda Tanis, Havara ve Ghurab’da, Mariette XIX. yüzyıl ortasında Serapeum’da Alkman’ın şiirlerini, Homeros destanının parçalarını, Arap, Kopt ve Bizans yazmalarını bulmuştur. G. Rubensohn ve F. Zucken, Elephantine ve Hermopolis’te milâttan önce V. yüzyıla ait Ârâmî metinleriyle Assuan’da Ptolemaoislar’a ilişkin evlenme sözleşmesini (m.ö. 311-310) çıkarmıştır. 1915’te Philadelphia’da çıkan, Ptolemaios II Philadelphos’un malî işler sorumlusu Zenon’a ilişkin arşiv belgeleri önemli buluntulardandır. Ülkenin para sistemini düzenleyen, yöneticilerle halk arasındaki ilişkileri, tarım örgütlenmesini ve vergi listelerini tanıtan belge milâttan önce III. yüzyıla tarihlenmektedir. C. Schmidt 1930’da Berlin Müzesi adına Feyyûm’da Koptlar’a ait bir kodeks bulmuş, H. Ibscher de Maniehizm’e ilişkin eserler çıkarmıştır. I. Dünya Savaşı’ndan sonra Fransız, İtalyan ve Amerikalılar kazıları sürdürmüştür. II. Dünya Savaşı’nın ardından Nag Hammadi’de Kopt Gnostik papirüs kodeksi bulunarak Cenova’da Bodmer Libray tarafından yayımlanmıştır. Yunanistan’da ilk papirüs rulosu 1962’de Selânik’in kuzeyindeki Derveni’de ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Kısmen kömürleşmiş olan bu rulolar Orpheus’un Theogonia adlı eserinin metnine aittir. 1972’de Pompei yakınlarında Heralanum’da Papirüsler Villası denilen yerde filozof Epikuros’ün eserlerine ait 800 kadar kömürleşmiş rulo bulunmuştur.
İslâm kültüründe yazı malzemesi olarak parşömenle beraber daha çok mektup ve ticarî yazışmalarda papirüsün de kullanıldığı bilinmektedir. Papirüs üzerine yazılmış günümüze ulaşan belgelerden biri Halife Ömer devrine aittir (22/643). Mısır’da ortaya çıkan Arapça ve Yunanca yazılmış bu belge Viyana Millî Kütüphanesi Erzherzog Rainer Papirüs koleksiyonunda (nr. 558) korunmaktadır. Papirüsün İslâm dünyasında mektup ve önemli yazışmalarda kâğıdın yaygınlaştığı IX. (XV.) yüzyıla kadar kullanıldığı tahmin edilmektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Herodotos, Tarih (trc. Müntekim Ökmen), İstanbul 1983, II, 92; G. Lafaye, “Papyrus et Papyrum”, Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines d’après les textes et les monuments (ed. Ch. Daremberg), Paris 1877-1900, s. 319-322; W. Schubart, Das Buch bei den Griechen and Römern, Eine Studie aus der Berliner Papyrussamlung, Berlin 1921; a.mlf., “Das Antike Buch”, Die Antike, XIV/3, Berlin 1938, s. 171-195; H. Leclerg, “Livre”, DACL (1930), s. 1754-1772; J. W. Thompson, The Ancient Libraries, Berkeley 1940; M. I. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Hellenic World, Oxford 1941, I; H. L. Pinner, The World of Books in Classical Antiquity, Leiden 1948; F. G. Kenyon, Books and Readers in Ancient Greece and Rome, Oxford 1951, s. 19-52; C. Wendel, Handbuch der Bibliothekswissenschaft I.: Schrift und Buch, Wiesbaden 1955, s. 249-252; H. L. Plenderleith, The Conservation and Antiquities and Works of Art, London 1956; M. Ahmad Hussein, Vom Papyrus zum Codex: Der Beitrag Ägyptens zur Buchkultur, Leipzig 1970, s. 16-22; a.mlf., Origins of the Book: Egypt’s Contribution to the Development of the Book from Papyrus to Codex (trc. D. Jaeschke – D. Sharp), Greenwich 1972; C. H. Roberts, “Papyrology Greek”, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford 1984, s. 778-780; A. Schlott, Schrift und Schreiber im alten Ägypten, München 1991, s. 62-85; A. Lemaire, “Writing and Writing Materials”, The Anchor Bible Dictionary (ed. D. N. Freedman), New York 1992, VI, 999-1008; Nuray Yıldız, Eskiçağda Yazı Malzemeleri ve Kitabın Oluşumu, Ankara 2000; a.mlf., Antikçağ Kütüphaneleri, İstanbul 2003; a.mlf., “Eskiçağdan Günümüze Ulaşan Yazılı Belge ve Eserler”, Simurg: Kitap Kokusu, sy. 2-3, İstanbul 2000, s. 428-445; M. Maraqten, “Writing Materials in Pre-Islamic Arabia”, JSS , XLIII/2 (1998), s. 287-310.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2007 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 34. cildinde, 162-163 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.