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PARŞÖMEN Skip to content Hayvan derisinden yapılan ve adını Anadolu’daki Bergama (Pergamon) şehrinden alan yazı malzemesi.
Çeşitli yöntemlerle işlenen hayvan derileri, yazı malzemesi olarak milâttan önce III. binyıldan milâttan sonra VI ve VII. yüzyıllara kadar kullanılmıştır. Mısır’da eski krallık döneminden (m.ö. 2778-2413) kalan örnekler yanında en eski matematik metinlerinden biri deri üzerine yazılmıştır. Derinin asıl kullanımı yeni krallık zamanında (m.ö. 1580-1085) artmış, XVIII. sülâle döneminde (m.ö. 1580-1320) kanun metinleri kırk kadar deri rulo üzerine yazılmış, Kopt devrinde de deri kullanımı devam etmiştir. Filolojik ve arkeolojik belgelerden Mezopotamya’da da derinin yazı malzemesi olarak kullanıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Milâttan önce VI-II. yüzyıllar arasında özellikle resmî belgeler deri üzerine yazılmıştır. Bu filolojik belgeler dışında Asur kabartmalarında derinin Mezopotamya’da yazı malzemesi olarak kullanılışı tasvir edilmiştir.
Ârâmîler’in, milâttan önce VIII. yüzyıldan itibaren Mezopotamya’da yerleşince özellikle siyasî ve günlük belgeleri deri üzerine yazmayı tercih ettikleri, Suriye ve Filistin’de derinin yazı malzemesi olarak kullanıldığı bilinmektedir. İbrânîler (m.ö. 1020-930), kutsal kitaplarını ve dini esas alan metinleri (thora) dikerek birbirine ekledikleri deriler üzerine yazıp rulolar haline getirmişlerdir. Milâttan önce 200-63 yılları arasında yazıldığı sanılan ve Tevrat’ın eski Yunanca’ya çevrilmesini anlatan Aristeas’ın mektubundan İbrânîler’in dinî metinlerinin deriler üzerine altın yaldızla yazıldığı anlaşılmaktadır.
Persler de deriyi yazı malzemesi olarak benimsemiştir. Kyros’un, kardeşi Artakserkses Mnemon’a karşı gerçekleştirdiği sefere katılan (m.ö. 401) ve İran sarayında on yedi yıl kalan Yunan hekimi Knidoslu Ktesios’un verdiği bilgiye göre Persler kendi kroniklerini deri malzeme üzerine yazmış ve bunlara “krallık derileri” (basilikai diphterai) adını vermiştir. Sicilyalı Diodoros’a göre Ptolemaios III Euergetes zamanında (m.ö. 246-221) bunların çevirisi inek derisi üzerine altın harflerle yazılmıştır. Önceleri kil tableti benimseyen Persler, Darius Hystaspis devrinde deri üzerine yazdıkları belgelerle arşivlerini kurmuştur. Nemli bir iklime sahip olan Anadolu’da deri buluntularına rastlanmamıştır. Ancak Kapadokya metinlerinde deri üzerine yazan kâtiplerden, Hititler ve sonrasında Anadolu’da deri üzerine yazılmış metinlerden bahsedilmektedir.
Eski Yunanlılar deriyi yazı aracı olarak erken dönemlerden itibaren kullanmıştır. Spartalılar politik mektuplarını deri üzerine yazıyor, “skutale” denilen ağacı sopalara sararak rulo yapıyorlardı. Plutaskhos’a ve diğer kaynaklara göre mesajlar bu şekilde gönderilirdi. Tapınak arşivlerinde Apollon’un sözlerini içeren deriye yazılmış metinler vardı. Epimenides’in kehanet metinleri, Euripides’in Kleisthenes adlı eseri, Demosthenes’in eserleri, Menandros’un Dyscolus adlı komedisi gibi pek çok metin deri üzerine yazılmıştır. Eskiçağ’a ait birçok önemli eser kuru iklimi sebebiyle Mısır’da bulunmuştur. Eski Yunan döneminde de koyun ve keçi derileri ham veya pek işlenmemiş olarak ve tek tarafına yazılarak Anadolu’da kullanılıyordu. İyonyalılar, Heredotos zamanında deriye “diphtera” diyorlar, bunu her çeşit yazı malzemesi, hatta papirüs için de kullanıyorlardı.
Helenistik devir, deriden yapılan yazı malzemesinin “pergamen” adını alması ve derilerin iyice işlenerek her iki yüzüne de yazılması açısından bir dönüm noktasıdır. İskenderiye Kütüphanesi ile yeni kurulacak olan Bergama Kütüphanesi arasındaki rekabet derinin Bergama’da geliştirilmesine sebep olmuştur. Plinius’a göre Mısır Kralı Ptolemaios VI. Philometor’un (m.ö. 181-145) Bergama’ya papirüs ihracını yasaklaması üzerine Bergama Kütüphanesi’nin ihtiyacı olan kitaplar için deri malzeme tekniği geliştirilmiştir. Böylece deri yazı malzemesi Bergama’da Kral II. Eumenes zamanında (m.ö. 197-160) bu şehrin adından dolayı “pergament” adını almış, Batı dillerinde parşömen kelimesiyle ifade edilmiştir.
Değerli ve ince parşömen elde etmek için dana veya buzağı derisi tercih edilirdi. Pergamentin kalitesi derinin yapımı, homojen oluşu, rengi, kalınlığı ve mürekkebi alışına bağlıdır. İyi pergament dayanıklıdır ve pek sararmaz. Önce derinin dış tabakası “epidermis” ve “dermis” çıkartılır, ortadaki “corium” alınır. Dıştaki tüylü kısım kireç, idrar ve ağaç külleriyle karıştırılmış su ile çıkartılır. İçteki kısım sönmemiş kireçte birkaç gün bekletilerek bıçakla kazınır. Tezgâhta gerilen derinin yüzeyindeki pürüzler sünger taşı ile düzleştirilir ve cilâlanır, ardından pudra haline getirilmiş kireç taşı sürülür. İşlenen ve cilâlanan parşömen tabakası dikdörtgen yapraklar halinde (hartia, fulla, folia) kesilerek biçimlendirilir. Daha dayanıklı olan tüylü yüzün üzeri kör bir bıçakla işaretlenir. Her iki yüzde marjlar belirlenir. Dört yaprak alınarak ikiye katlanır, bunlardan birine “diploma” denir. Katlanmış ve bir araya getirilmiş dört yaprak bir defter (quaternio, tetras, tetradion) meydana getirir. Bu katlamalar sonunda “paginae” adını alan daha küçük sekiz yapraklı bir kitap oluşur. Yapraklar bir defa katlanırsa “folio”, iki defa katlanırsa “quarto”, dört defa katlanırsa “octavo” ve on iki defa katlanırsa “duodecimo” adını alır. Edebî eserler eni ve yüksekliği eşit olan quarto boydadır. En çok kullanılan ise sekiz yapraklıdır. Dikilmiş olan kitap artık “volumen”dir. Bir sayfada iki-dört sütun bulunur. Yapraklar harflenir ve oluşan defterler numaralanır. Derinin kireçle işlenerek parşömene dönüştürülmesi işi Mısır’ın Araplar tarafından fethinden sonra İtalya ve İspanya yolu ile Avrupa’ya geçmiştir.
Parşömenin üzerine önceden yazılmış metinlerin silinerek yenilerinin yazılması işlemine “çift kullanım” (palimpsestum) denir. Parşömen çakı ile kazınarak silinir, is mürekkebiyle yazılan yazı kaybolur ve yenisi yazılır. Ekonomi amacıyla yapılan bu işlem parşömen üzerindeki klasik eserlerin silinerek yerine Ortaçağ’ın dinî metinlerinin yazılması sonucunu doğurmuştur.
Papirüs ve parşömen, ruloların etrafında birkaç defa deri şeritler dolanarak tutturuluyordu. Bu şeritlerde delik ve düğmeler vardı. Rulolar sarı veya erguvan renkli parşömen kılıfa konuyordu ve bu kılıflara “diphtera, phainolus, membrana, rubra membrana” gibi adlar veriliyordu. Bu kutular altın ve gümüş “gemma”lar, oyma ve kakmalarla süslüydü. Sonraları kodeksler de pahalı ve süslü kutulara yerleştirilmeye başlanmış, bütün bunlar kitap şekli, ciltçilik gibi konularda parşömen kitap için başlangıç olmuştur.
Helenistik devirde yetmiş iki bilgin tarafından İbrânîce’den eski Yunanca’ya pek çok eser çevrilmiştir. Ahd-i Atîk de bunlar arasındadır. Papirüs üzerindeki eserler de parşömene geçirilmiştir. Yukarı Fırat bölgesinde Dura Europos’ta (Salâhiye) milâttan önce 196-190 yılları arasına tarihlenen, Selevkoslar (Seleucos) dönemine ait parşömen üzerine yazılmış belgeler bulunmuştur. Koyun ve keçi derisinden yapılmış, ince ve pürüzsüz bu parşömenler arşiv niteliğinde belgeler olup yörenin kuru iklimi sayesinde günümüze ulaşabilmiştir. Selevkos Devleti’nin Grek-Suriye hukuku, Selevkoslar’ın devlet yönetim sistemi, ekonomisi konularında bilgi veren bu belgeler deri bağlarla tutturularak kitap şekli verilmiştir.
Roma döneminin ilk zamanlarında yazılar pek işlenmemiş deri malzeme üzerine yazılıyordu. Etrüskler milâttan önce X ve VIII. yüzyıllarda deriyi yazı malzemesi olarak kullanmıştır. Milâttan önce II. yüzyılın ilk yarısında Aristarkhos, İskenderiye’den Roma’ya papirüsü getirdiği sırada meslektaşı Malloslu Krathes de Bergama’dan inceltip geliştirdikleri parşömeni Roma’ya taşımıştır. Parşömen önceleri papirüsün yanında az kullanılırken milâttan sonra III. yüzyıldan itibaren ve özellikle IV. yüzyılda kullanımı artmış ve giderek papirüsün yerine geçmiştir.
Parşömen Roma’da I. yüzyıldan itibaren yazı aracı olarak kullanılmaya başlanmış, her iki yüzüne yazılabilmesi, ucuz ve açık renkli oluşu, okuma kolaylığı gibi sebeplerle Roma İmparatorluğu içinde kısa zamanda yayılmış, Hıristiyanlık ile bütün Avrupa’da yaygınlaşmış, dualar, ritüeller ve dinî eğitime ilişkin metinler onun üzerine yazılmıştır. Daha önce papirüs üzerine yazılmış olan metinler sağlam olan parşömene aktarılmıştır. İmparator Konstantinos (m.s. 324-337), saray kütüphanesinde bulunan Homeros’un şiirlerini altın yaldızlı harflerle deri üzerine yazdırmış, İstanbul’da inşa ettirdiği kilisenin kütüphanesindeki yazıların kopyalarını da parşömene yazdırarak güvence altına almıştır. IV. yüzyıldan itibaren papirüs yazmalar parşömene geçirilmiştir. Deri, üzerine yazıldıktan sonra yapraklar bir arada tutturularak kitap şekli (kodeks) verilmiş, rulo yerine kodeks şeklini almış olan bu ciltler milâttan sonra II-IV. yüzyıllar arasında kullanılmıştır. Gittikçe artan lüks merakı ile parşömen kitaplar altın yaldız ve mücevherler, minyatür, resim ve portrelerle süslenmiştir.
İslâm dünyasında kâğıt üretimi yapan ilk tesis 178 (794-95) yılında Bağdat’ta kurulmuş, bu tarihe kadar yazı malzemesi olarak parşömen kullanılmıştır. İslâm’ın doğuşu sırasında Mekke ve Medine’de deri tabakçılığının varlığı bilinmektedir. Hz. Peygamber’in hayatıyla ilgili kaynak eserlerde yazı malzemesi olarak safran ve gül suyu ile boyanmış, inceltilmiş, terbiye edilmiş derinin (parşömen, rak) kullanıldığı, özellikle vahiy ve mektupların dayanıklı ve kalıcı olması sebebiyle parşömen üzerine yazılmasının Peygamber tarafından öğütlendiği, Halife Osman zamanında çoğaltılan mushafların da parşömen üzerine yazıldığı belirtilmektedir. Sonraki dönemlerde ilim ve sanat hayatında görülen canlanma ve yazılı kültürün gelişmesine paralel biçimde parşömen kullanımı yaygınlaşmıştır. Günümüzde, Hz. Osman dönemine ait olduğu ileri sürülen mushaf nüshaları dışında en erken yazmalar VIII. yüzyıla tarihlenen örneklerdir. Tarihleri kesin olarak bilinen İslâm el yazmaları IX. yüzyılın ortalarında yatay formatta parşömen üzerine kûfî hatla yazılmıştır. Şam Valisi Emâcûr için istinsah edilen 870-878 tarihli mushaf (TİEM, nr. SE 5463) günümüze ulaşmış ve parşömen üzerine yazılmış ilk örneklerdendir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA G. Lafaye, “Liber”, Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines d’après les textes et les monuments, Paris 1877-1900, s. 1182; J. Bottero, “Livre”, Dictionnaire archéologique de techniques II: Asie occidentale, Paris 1963-64, s. 582-584; R. F. Hayer, Assyrian and Babylonian Letters Belonging to the Koujunjik Collection of the British Museum, London 1897, Text 568, rev. 19; H. von Gaertringen, Inschriften von Priene, Berlin 1906, s. 321; Th. Birt, Die Buchrolle in der Kunst: Archaologisch-Antiquarische Untersuchungen zum Antiken Buchwesen, Leipzig 1907; V. Gardthausen, Das Buchwesen im Altertum und im Byzantinischen Mittelalter, Leipzig 1911, s. 91; W. Schubart, Das Buch bei den Griechen und Römern, Eine Studie aus der Berliner Papyrussamlung, Berlin-Leipzig 1921, s. 18; R. P. Dougherty, Archives from Erech, New Haven 1923, I, 128-129; a.mlf., “Writing Upon Parchment and Papyrus Among the Babylonians and the Assyrians”, JAOS, XLVIII (1928), s. 109-135; P. Montet, Les scènes de la vie privée dans les tombeaux egyptiens de l’ancien empire, Strasburg 1925, s. 318; F. Cumont, Fouilles de doura-europos: 1922-1923, V, 281-337; J. W. Thompson, The Ancient Libraries, Berkeley 1940, s. 67; N. de G. Davies, The Tomb of Rekhmire at Thebes, New York 1944, I, 31, lv. XXVI; M. Burrows, The Dead Sea Scrolls of the St. Mark’s Monastery, New Haven 1950, I, tür.yer.; F. G. Kenyon, Books and Readers in Ancient Greece and Rome, Oxford 1951, s. 93; R. J. Forbes, Studies in Ancient Technology, Leiden 1955, III, 28; H. J. Plenderleith, The Conservation and Antiquities and Works of Art, London 1956, s. 46; A. Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, London 1962, s. 364; J. Platthy, Sources on the Earliest Greek Librartes with the Testimonia, Amsterdam 1968, s. 79; G. R. Driver, Aramaic Documents of the Fifty Century B. C., Osnabrück 1968, s. 1-3; K. Galling, “Tafel, Buch and Blatt”, Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William Foxvell Albright (ed. H. Goedicke), London 1971, s. 207-223; R. Reed, Ancient Skins, Parchments, and Leathers, London-New York 1972, s. 127-175; a.mlf. – J. B. Poole, “The Preparation of Leather and Parchment by the Dead Sea Scrolls Community”, Technology and Culture, III (1962), s. 1-26; Hamîdullah, İslâm Peygamberi (Tuğ), II, 764, 992; M. Levey, “Tanning Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia”, Ambix, VI, Cambridge 1957, s. 38; M. Maraqten, “Writing Materials in Pre-Islamic Arabia”, JSS, XLIII/2 (1998), s. 287-310.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2007 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 34. cildinde, 176-177 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.