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PÎŞKEŞ Skip to content Osmanlı bürokrasisinde üst makama sunulan hediye için kullanılan terim.
Sözlükte “hediye, armağan” anlamına gelen Farsça pîşkeş kelimesi terim olarak Osmanlı Devleti’nde padişah başta olmak üzere sadrazam ve diğer devlet adamlarına, şehzadelere alt makamlardan takdim edilen hediyeleri ifade eder. Yüksek makamdan verilen bahşiş ve in‘âmın bir nevi karşıtıdır. Fâtih’in Teşkilât Kanunnâmesi’nde (s. 47) vezirlerin gelirlerinden bahsedilirken, “Ve onlara âyide benim rikâb-ı hümâyunuma her nereden haraç ve âdet-i ağnâmdan ve pîşkeş gelirse vüzerâma ve defterdarlarıma dahi hisseleri gelsin” şeklinde yer alan ifadeden pîşkeşin kısmî de olsa bir gelir telakki edildiği ve bu tarihlerde padişaha takdim edilen pîşkeşlerde bazı görevlilerin de hisselerinin bulunabileceği anlaşılır. XVIII. yüzyılda rikâb-ı hümâyuna ıydiyye (bayramlık) olarak sunulan pîşkeşler padişahın şahsından başka kadınlarına, enderun ağalarına, diğer enderun görevli ve hizmetlilerine de tahsis edilmiştir.
Daha çok padişahı ilgilendiren pîşkeş uygulaması bir büyüğe hediye sunma geleneği olarak kuruluş döneminden beri mevcuttu. Bilhassa padişahı görme, huzura çıkma gibi durumlarda hediye takdim etme usulü yaygındı. Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman zamanından itibaren çeşitli vesilelere bağlı olarak (cülûs, bayram ve düğün merasimleri) padişaha pîşkeş sunmak âdet haline geldi. Buna daha sonra padişah adına ziyafet düzenleyen devlet adamlarının yemekten sonra pîşkeş sunmaları gibi yenileri de eklendi. XVII. yüzyıl sonlarına gelindiğinde pîşkeş miktarları giderek belirli duruma geldi, böylece zorunluluk haline dönüşen pîşkeş geleneği hediye olma özelliğinden iyice uzaklaştı. Bu değişim ifadelere de yansıdı; veriliş vesilesi ve miktarı muayyen hale gelen pîşkeşler için daha çok farklı isimler kullanılmaya başlandı. Meselâ bayramlarda verilenlere “ıydiyye” denildi. Pîşkeş ifadesi tamamen terkedilmemekle beraber XVIII. yüzyıl içerisinde kullanım alanı giderek daraldı.
XVI. yüzyıl ortalarından itibaren bu gelenek rüşvet-pîşkeş-câize/cevâiz üçlüsüyle ifade edilen uygulamalarla suistimale açık hale geldi. Vezîriâzamlığı sırasında rüşvetle mücadele ettiğini yazan Lutfi Paşa’nın (ö. 970/1563) kaleme aldığı Âsafnâme’de (s. 70) rüşvetten söz ederken muhtaç olmayan bir dosttan gelen hediyenin dışında alınanların bu kapsama girdiğini ve bundan sakınmak gerektiğini ifade etmesi bu anlamda dikkat çekicidir. Rüşvet ve hediye karışıklığı bilhassa III. Murad zamanında daha da yoğunlaştı. XVI. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren ıslahat risâlelerinde görevlerin pîşkeş ve câize adı altında alınan rüşvetlerle satıldığından yakınıldığı, hatta başta padişahla sadrazam olmak üzere başdefterdar ve yeniçeri ağası gibi görevlilerin rüşvet almakla suçlandığı görülür. Bu tarihlerde câize pîşkeşten pek farklı görülmemekte ve pîşkeş kelimesi bu anlamda da kullanılmaktaydı (Koçi Bey, s. 29). Sonraki yüzyıllarda daha açık bir uygulama şekline kavuşan câize Eflak ve Boğdan voyvodaları, vezirler, beylerbeyi ve sancak beyleriyle bazı bürokratik makamlara tayin veya ibkalarda alınan nakitleri ifade etmeye başladı. Nâdiren nakitle birlikte verilen kürk gibi şeyleri de ihtiva ederdi. Câizelerin büyük kısmı sadrazama aitti. Sadrazam dışında sadâret kethüdâsı ile reîsülküttâbın payları vardı. Ayrıca bazı tayinlerde Bâbıâli’deki daha küçük görevlilerin de câize aldığı belirtilmektedir. XVIII. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında artık padişahın câize almadığı kaydedilir.
XVI. yüzyılda rüşvet diye nitelenen ve görev tevcihlerinde alınan pîşkeş ve câizelerin çoğunlukla merkezden istendiği, hatta pîşkeş elde etmek için bir göreve yılda üç dört defa tayin yapıldığı, bazan da pîşkeşi alınarak tayin edilen bir şahsın görevine başlamadan yerine başkasının görevlendirildiği görülmektedir. Bu şekilde tayin yapılan makamlar çoğunlukla beylerbeyilik, sancak beyliği, kadılık, eyalet defterdarlıkları ve sultan vakıfları tevliyetleri gibi vazifelerdi. Bu konuda geniş bilgi veren Selânikî görevlerin “pîşkeş ü hedâyâ vü armağan nâmıyla ağır bahâlu rüşvetlerle” satıldığından, böylece istihkak sahipleri yerine ehil olmayanlara verildiğinden şikâyet etmektedir (Târih, s. 504). Rüşvet niteliği taşıyanlarla taşımayanlar arasındaki fark yapılacak tayinin bir ön şartı olarak pîşkeş talep edilmesi, miktarlarının fazlalığı ve geleneksel olarak pîşkeş ve câize vermeyen görevlilerden de istenmesiydi. Bir süre sonra bu yöntemin sakıncaları ortaya çıkınca çareler aranmaya başlandı. İlk olarak sultan vakıflarındaki vazifelerin bu şekilde tevcihinden vazgeçildi. XVIII. yüzyılda câizelere “tebrîkiyye, tebşîriyye” gibi isimler altında yeni eklemeler yapıldı. III. Selim’e sunduğu lâyihasında Tatarcık Abdullah Efendi, bunun sebebi olarak sadrazamların bir süreden beri gelirlerinin giderlerini karşılamaya yeterli olmamasını gösterir.
Pîşkeş olarak sunulan hediyeler bazan bir miktar nakit; kıymetli madenlerden -çoğunlukla gümüş- ve değerli taşlarla süslenmiş eşya (şamdan, buhurdan, gülâbdan, maşraba, matara, kavanoz, şişe, tepsi, sürahi, leğen, ibrik, kupa gibi); mücevherlerle süslü koşum takımları, atlar; kılıç, hançer, ok, yay gibi silâhlar; başlık, kemer, nalın, kumaş, kürk gibi giyim eşyaları ve çadır, halı, ayna, saat gibi çeşitli şeylerdi. Bunlar arasında en yaygın olanı kumaşlar olup genellikle bohça içinde verilirdi. Nâdiren esir ve kölelere, hatta forsalara da rastlanmaktadır. Ulemânın takdim ettiği pîşkeşler içerisinde kitaplar önemli yer tutuyordu. Kur’ân-ı Kerîm, tefsir, hadis, fıkıh, fetva kitapları, divanlar daha çok sunulan kitap türleriydi. 1683 Viyana seferinde Serdârıekrem Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Paşa’yı Belgrad civarına kadar uğurlayan IV. Mehmed’e yol üzerinde sunulan pîşkeşler arasında ekmeğe de rastlanmaktadır. Öte yandan patriklik, hahambaşılık, metropolitlik makamlarına tayin edilenlerin sunduğu aidatlar da pîşkeş adıyla anılırdı.
Hediye ile gelen elçilerin ve Eflak-Boğdan voyvodalarının hediyeleri Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’un ardından elçinin arza girişi sırasında sunulurdu. Hediyeler, divan toplantısı devam ederken pîşkeşçi ağa kontrolünde Bâbüssaâde yakınında özel olarak hazırlanmış bir yere dizilir ve teşrifatçı tarafından listesi yapılarak pîşkeşçi ağaya verilirdi. Pîşkeşçi ağa vasıtasıyla Bâbüssaâde veya Dârüssaâde ağasına ulaştırılan bu liste divan toplantısından sonra elçinin arza girişi sırasında padişaha teslim edilirdi. Diğer taraftan pîşkeşler, pîşkeşçi ağa öncülüğünde ve genellikle ikişer sıra halinde dizilmiş kapıcılar tarafından taşınarak Arz Odası penceresi önünden geçirilip enderun hazinedarbaşısı ağaya verilirdi. Bu sırada ihtiyaç duyulursa yeniçeriler kapıcılara yardım ederdi (Selânikî, s. 656-657). Böylece pîşkeşler listesiyle birlikte padişaha sunulmuş olurdu. Elçilerin getirdiği hediyelerin saraya gelişinden enderun hazinesine teslimi arasındaki kontrol ve sunumuyla ilgili işlere nezaret eden pîşkeşçi ağa / pîşkeşçi-i şehriyârî sarayın kapıcı bölükbaşılarındandı. Hezarfen Hüseyin Efendi, pîşkeşçinin saraydaki kırk beş kapıcı bölükbaşısının en muteberlerinden olup kâtip ve kethüdâdan sonra üçüncü sırada yer aldığını söylemektedir. Görevini de, “Elçiler getirdiği pîşkeşi dizer. Ve mansıp alanlar el öpmeye vardıkta önüne düşüp selâm yerlerini gösterir” şeklinde özetlemektedir (Telhîsü’l-beyân, s. 58).
Tayin dolayısıyla kendilerine hil‘at giydirilerek arza girip el öpmesi gerekenler de bu vesileyle padişaha hediyeler takdim etmiştir. Eflak ve Boğdan voyvodaları tayinlerinde Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’a gelir, merasimle önceleri börk, sonradan kuka denilen başlıklarını giyerek arza girip padişahın elini öperlerdi. Bu sırada padişaha pîşkeş sunarlardı. İstanbul’da bulunmayan beylerbeyi ve sancak beyleri pîşkeşlerini kapı kethüdâları, kadılar ise muhzır denen görevlileri aracılığıyla takdim ederlerdi (BA, KK, nr. 665). Devlet adamları tarafından saraya gönderilen pîşkeşler Dârüssaâde ağasına teslim edilerek onun vasıtasıyla sunulurdu. Saray dışındaki bir kısım merasimler esnasında bazan doğrudan, bazan da sadrazam aracılığıyla pîşkeşler takdim edilmiştir. Pîşkeşler genellikle bunları sunan tarafından pusulasıyla birlikte teslim edilir, pusulası olmayanların listesi yapılarak padişaha verilirdi. Sadrazam vasıtasıyla teslim edilenler için de sadrazam tarafından telhis yazıldığı görülmektedir (Defterdar Sarı Mehmed Paşa, s. 60).
Sadrazamın ıydiyye olarak sunacağı pîşkeş vüzerânın hediyeleri ve sadâret kethüdâsı, kaptan paşa, yeniçeri ağası ile defterdar tarafından gönderilecek atlarla birlikte bayramdan bir hafta kadar önce saraya yollanırdı. Belirlenen gün hediyeler ve atlar sabahın erken saatlerinde güneş doğmadan Bâbıâli önünde toplanır ve buradan sadâret kethüdâsı öncülüğünde kapıcılar tarafından taşınarak saraya götürülürdü. Sarayda Dârüssaâde ağasının divan odasında önce sadrazamın, ardından vüzerâ ve diğerlerinin hediyeleri, daha sonra da Mısır, Bağdat, Basra, Sayda ve Trablus eyaletleriyle Eflak/Boğdan voyvodasının hediye bahaları pusulaları ile birlikte ağaya teslim edilirdi. Bu üç hediye grubundan her biri ayrı ayrı üç defada ağa öncülüğünde baltacılar tarafından taşınarak padişahın huzuruna götürülür ve dönüşte hediye sahibinin temsilcileri sıfatıyla orada bulunanlara hil‘atler giydirilir, bahşişler dağıtılırdı. Atları getiren saraçlara da birer ikişer altın verilirdi.
Padişaha gelen pîşkeşle ilgili hazine gelir kayıtlarıyla önceleri Mevkūfat Kalemi’nin ilgilendiği anlaşılmaktadır. XVI. yüzyılda bu görev başdefterdara bağlı Teşrifat Kalemi’ne, daha sonra ise Rûznâmçe-i Hümâyun’a geçmiştir (Karaca, s. 38-40). Pîşkeşler, XVI. yüzyıl bütçelerinde düzenli olmayan gelirlerden olarak ait oldukları bölgenin bağlı bulunduğu defterdarının gelirleri arasında ayrı ayrı ve genellikle mevkufla birlikte yer almıştır (Sahillioğlu, s. 56, 66; Barkan, XIX/1-4 [1957-58], s. 284, 303). 1567-1568 bütçesini inceleyen Ömer Lutfi Barkan, ayrıca “emvâl-i sâire” şeklinde yer almış gelirler arasında cülûs münasebetiyle takdim edilmiş pîşkeş mahsulünün bulunduğu kanaatine varmıştır. Böylece Hazîne-i Âmire’nin geliri olarak kaydedilen padişaha ait pîşkeşler gerek duyulduğunda tamamıyla iç hazineye aktarılabiliyordu.
Vezîriâzamlara da benzer şekilde hediyeler sunulmuştur. Selânikî vefatı dolayısıyla Koca Sinan Paşa’dan bahsederken, “Pîşkeş ü hedâyâ alıp vermede azîmü’l-iktidâr idi” demektedir (Târih, s. 582). Sefere çıkan serdâr-ı ekreme İstanbul kaymakamı ve başşehirdeki diğer erkân, beylerbeyiler ve yol üzerindeki muhafızlar tarafından sıkça pîşkeşler takdim edilirdi. Sefer esnasında sunulan pîşkeşler arasında en çok rastlananı atlardır. Vezîriâzamın pîşkeşle alâkalı kayıt işlemleriyle sadâret kethüdâlığı ilgilenirdi. Beylerbeyi ve sancak beylerinin bu tür işleri ise kapı kethüdâlarının göreviydi. Sancağa çıkışlarında şehzadelere devlet erkânı tarafından pîşkeşler takdim edilmiş (a.g.e., s. 142-143), padişaha pîşkeş sunulurken yakınında bulunan şehzadeye de zaman zaman verilmiştir.
XVII. yüzyıl sonlarına gelindiğinde çoğunlukla miktarları belirginleşerek mecburiyet haline dönüşen uygulama şekliyle pîşkeş, malî sıkıntılar yüzünden gelir gider dengeleri bozulmuş olan pîşkeş vericilerini zor durumda bırakmıştır. II. Süleyman döneminde Köprülüzâde Fâzıl Mustafa Paşa’nın vezîriâzamlığında bayramlarda rikâb-ı hümâyuna verilmesi âdet olan pîşkeşler kaldırılmışsa da bu uzun sürmemiş, II. Ahmed’in hatt-ı hümâyunu ile ıydiyyeler tekrar eski şekliyle verilmeye başlanmıştır (Anonim Osmanlı Tarihi, s. 43; Defterdar Sarı Mehmed Paşa, s. 423). Râgıb Paşa’nın sadrazamlığı devrinde câizeler verenlerin gelir durumuna göre azaltılarak yeniden düzenlenmiştir.
Iydiyye ve câizelere dair tamamen kaldırılmalarından önceki son geniş çaplı düzenleme III. Selim zamanında 1792’de yapılmıştır. Bu düzenlemenin gerekçesi israfı önlemekti. Câize verenlerin malî sıkıntıya düşürülmemesi gözetilerek resmî göreve getirilenlerden alınanların çoğu kaldırılmış, diğerlerinin ise miktarları azaltılmıştır. Bilhassa câizeler dolayısıyla borçlanıp göreve başlayan Eflak ve Boğdan voyvodalarının bu sıkıntılarının giderilmesi hedeflenmiştir. Iydiyyeler de padişah ve sadrazam tarafından nakit olarak alınanlar dışında kaldırılmıştır. Bunlar yılda bir defa ödenecek ve bir yılını doldurmadan görevden ayrılanların verdikleri câizelerin görev süresini aşan kısmı selefinden alınan câizeden geri ödenecekti. Bu arada sadrazamların belli günlerde padişaha at hediye etmelerinin devamına karar verilmiş, böylece sadrazam dışında at hediye etme usulü kaldırılmıştır. Bu düzenlemeye göre padişah câize almamaktadır. Iydiyye olarak sadrazamdan 100.000 (bu miktar sadrazamın verdiği ıydiyye ve yıllığın birleştirilmesiyle tesbit edilmiştir; bunun 39.850 kuruşu Enderûn-ı Hümâyun’a ait olup Dârüssaâde ağasına, 60.150 kuruşu Dâire-i Bîrûn-ı Hümâyun’a ait olup silâhdar ağaya gönderilirdi), Mısır ve Bağdat eyaletlerinden 5000’er, Trablus ve Sayda eyaletlerinden 4000’er, şıkk-ı evvel defterdarından 8000, Eflak ve Boğdan voyvodalarından 30.000’er kuruş ıydiyye alacaktı (10.000 kuruşu ıydiyye-i hümâyun, 20.000 kuruşu ıydiyye-i dâire-i hümâyun olarak). Daha sonraki tarihlerde Kaptanpaşa eyaletinden de 5000 kuruş ıydiyye alınmıştır. Sadrazamın padişahın ıydiyye aldığı eyaletlerden miktarın yarısı kadar, ayrıca Şam eyaletinden 3000 kuruş, şıkk-ı evvel defterdarından 10.000 kuruş, Eflak ve Boğdan voyvodalarından 8500’er kuruş, İstanbul gümrüğünden 2500 kuruş (esb-bahâ) ıydiyye tahsisatı vardı. II. Mahmud’un saltanatında önce III. Selim zamanında belirlenen miktarlara bazı ilâveler yapılmış, daha sonra maaş sistemine geçiş dolayısıyla yapılan yenilikler sırasında birçoğu kaldırılmıştır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA BA, KK, nr. 696 M, vr. 105a ; BA, BEO, Sadaret Defteri, nr. 347, s. 52; nr. 350, vr. 9b -27a ; nr. 353, vr. 26b ; nr. 355, vr. 9a -19a , 28b -31b , 39a -40b , 113b -115a ; nr. 359, s. 20-24; nr. 360, vr. 31a , 36a ; nr. 437, vr. 34b ; nr. 438, vr. 7a ; BA, MAD, nr. 8989, s. 25; Defter-i Teşrîfât, TSMK, Revan Köşkü, nr. 1310, vr. 7b , 11b , 17b , 20b , 23a , 25b , 26a -27a , 29b , 30b -32b , 33b , 35a -36a , 37a , 59a , 66b -67a , 89b -90a , 111b ; Başmuhasebe Kalemi Nizamnâmesi, İÜ Ktp., TY, nr. 3634, vr. 35b ; Fâtih’in Teşkilât Kanunnâmesi (nşr. Abdülkadir Özcan, TD , sy. 33 [1982] içinde), s. 47; Lutfi Paşa, Âsafnâme (nşr. Mübahat S. Kütükoğlu, Prof. Dr. Bekir Kütükoğlu’na Armağan içinde), İstanbul 1991, s. 70; Selânikî, Târih (İpşirli), bk. İndeks; Koçi Bey, Risâle (Aksüt), s. 29; Tevkiî Abdurrahman Paşa, Kānûnnâme (MTM, I/3 [1331] içinde), s. 514; Hezârfen Hüseyin Efendi, Telhîsü’l-beyân fî Kavânîn-i Âl-i Osmân (haz. Sevim İlgürel), İstanbul 1998, s. 58, 82, 207-246; Teşrifatîzâde Mehmed, Defter-i Teşrîfât, İÜ Ktp., TY, nr. 9810, vr. 108b ; Anonim Osmanlı Tarihi: 1099-1116/1688-1704 (haz. Abdülkadir Özcan), Ankara 2000, s. 40, 43, 104-106, 175-176, 205, 247, 262, 266-268, 290, 440-442; Defterdar Sarı Mehmed Paşa, Zübde-i Vekayiât (haz. Abdülkadir Özcan), Ankara 1995, s. 58-68, 271-272, 423, 636, 741, 813; M. Tayyib Gökbilgin, Osmanlı Müessese Teşkilâtı ve Medeniyeti Tarihine Genel Bakış, İstanbul 1977, s. 112; Yavuz Cezar, Osmanlı Maliyesinde Bunalım ve Değişim Dönemi, İstanbul 1986, s. 65; Halil Sahillioğlu, Türkiye İktisat Tarihi: Giriş, Bazı Kurum ve Kavramlar, İstanbul 1989, s. 56, 66; Filiz Karaca, Tanzimat Dönemi ve Sonrasında Osmanlı Teşrifat Müessesesi (doktora tezi, 1997), İÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, s. 38-40; Ahmed Refik, “Enderûn-ı Hümâyûn Devâir-i Âliyesinden: Arz Odası”, TOEM, sy. 38 (1334), s. 115; Ö. Lutfi Barkan, “H. 974-975 (1567-1568) Malî Yılına Âit Bir Osmanlı Bütçesi”, İFM, XIX/1-4 (1957-58), s. 284, 303; Muzaffer Doğan, “Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Makam Vergisi: Caize”, Türk Kültürü İncelemeleri Dergisi, sy. 7, İstanbul 2002, s. 35-74.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2007 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 34. cildinde, 294-296 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.