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PROTESTANLIK Skip to content PROTESTANLIK XVI. yüzyıl reform hareketine dayanan ve farklı kiliselerden oluşan Hıristiyanlık anlayışı.
Müellif: Jacques Waardenburg
XVI. yüzyılda Martin Luther öncülüğündeki reform hareketiyle başlayıp Ulrich Zwingli ve John Calvin gibi hıristiyan ilâhiyatçılarca geliştirilen Hıristiyanlığın teolojik ve ahlâkî bir yorumunu ve buna paralel olarak ortaya çıkan kiliseler ve cemaatler topluluğunu ifade eder. Protestan tabiri ilk defa, Lutherci görüşleri benimseyen bir grup Alman prensin ilân ettiği deklarasyona (Diet of Spiers, 1529) atıfla reform yanlılarını nitelendirmek için Roma Katolik kilisesi tarafından kullanılmıştır (bk. LUTHER, Martin; REFORM ).
Protestanlığın oluşum sürecinde XVI. yüzyılda Reform hareketiyle birlikte Almanya’da ve daha sonra İskandinav ülkelerinde Lüteryen cemaatleri; İsviçre, Fransa, Hollanda ve İskoçya’da reforme edilmiş (Calvinist, sonraki ismiyle Presbiteryen) Protestan cemaatleri, İngiltere’de ise Anglikan Hıristiyanlık ortaya çıkmıştır. XVII. yüzyılda Almanya’da ve İngiltere’de Protestan Ortodoksisi’ne karşı ferdî dindarlığı ve hıristiyan hayat tarzını öne çıkaran Lüteryen kökenli pietist ve püriten oluşumlar teşekkül etmiştir. Bu süreç içerisinde sadece yetişkin vaftizine onay veren Baptist kilisesinin (1609) yanı sıra teslîs ve kurtuluş gibi konularda klasik reformist (bilhassa Calvinist) öğretilerin ötesine geçen çeşitli teolojik akımlar (Unitarian Socinianizm, Arminianizm vb.) doğmuş, Fransa’dan göç eden Protestanlar’ın geliştirdiği felsefî ağırlıklı, tolerans ve vicdan hürriyeti gibi hususlara vurgu yapan yorumlar ortaya çıkmıştır. Söz konusu teolojik/felsefî akımlar XVIII. yüzyılda bir yandan rasyonalist Aydınlanma hareketi ve deist felsefe, öte yandan antirasyonalist Protestan hareketleri (neo-pietizm) şeklinde varlığını sürdürmüş, bu ikinci şekli de İngiltere’de Metodist kilisesinin oluşumunu hazırlamıştır. XIX. yüzyılda Protestanlığın gerek Avrupa gerekse Kuzey Amerika’daki gelişimi çok daha karmaşık bir yapı sergilemiştir.
Protestan cemaatler kendi inanç ve hayat düzenlerini oluşturabilmek adına gerektiğinde farklı bölgelere göç etmişler, genellikle tolerans yanlısı ve farklı dinlere açık devlet sistemlerini savunmuşlardır. Bununla birlikte başkalarından bekledikleri hoş görüyü kendileri her zaman başka gruplara göstermemişlerdir. Ayrıca Protestan oluşumlar, diğer hıristiyan grupları gibi, gelişen endüstrileşme kültürü karşısında bireylere mânevî destek sağlama yolunda çaba sarfetmişlerdir. Bazı Protestan oluşumlar, içinde yaşadıkları topluma ve kültüre katılma yolunu seçerken Protestan Ortodoksluğu, pietist, püriten oluşumlar vb. akımlar toplumdan ve baskın kültürden uzak durma, hatta onları reddetme tavrı ortaya koymuştur.
Günümüz Protestanlığının temsil ettiği sınırsız sayıdaki eğilim ve anlayış farklılığı göz önüne alındığında Protestan teolojisi konusunda genelleme yapmak güçtür. Bununla birlikte klasik Protestanlığın bugünkü çoğulcu Protestanlığı ile mukayese edildiğinde çok daha ayırt edici bir inanç anlayışına sahip olduğunu belirtmek gerekir. Buradan hareketle hepsi değilse bile çoğu Protestan oluşumu için geçerli olan bazı ortak teolojik ve etik unsurları şu şekilde sıralamak mümkündür: 1. Otoriter düzene ve hiyerarşik kilise yapısına baş kaldırı (XVI. yüzyıl reform hareketi sürecinde bu baş kaldırı Protestanlığın papalık kontrolündeki Katolik kilisesinden resmen ayrılmasıyla sonuçlanmıştır. Papalığın reddi, özellikle yanılmazlık ilkesinin kabulünden sonra Protestanlığın değişmez bir unsuru olma özelliğini daha da pekiştirmiştir); 2. Kutsal ruh ile gelenek, resmî öğreti ile Roma Katolik kilisesi otoritesi arasındaki bağın reddi; 3. Yaşayan ve tarihe aktif müdahalede bulunan Tanrı fikrine dayalı (teist) iman anlayışı; 4. Putperestliği ve ikonaları reddeden (ikonoklast) radikal monoteizm fikri, âdil ve merhamet sahibi olan Tanrı’nın sadece “ilâhî söz” vasıtasıyla konuştuğu ve iradesini yerine getirdiği inancı; 5. Îsâ merkezli iman anlayışı (Tanrı’nın özel biçimde Nâsıralı Îsâ’da mevcut olduğu ya da tezahür ettiği inancı; Tanrı ile insan arasında Îsâ Mesîh’ten başka bir aracının reddi); 6. Kitâb-ı Mukaddes’in (Eski ve Yeni Ahid) imanî hakikatin tek kaynağı olarak kabulü; 7. Kilisenin imanlılarca oluşturulmuş bir topluluk olarak görülmesi; 8. Bütün totaliter güç oluşumlarına yönelik eleştirel tavır (daima reforme edilmesi gerekli olan kilise dahil olmak üzere mevcut bütün oluşum ve müesseselerin sorgulanması); 9. Yerel cemaatlerin daha da bağımsız kılınmasını öngören eğilim (müesseseleşme durumundan isteğe bağlı katılıma doğru ilerleme, kadınların kilise yönetimine kabulü vb.); 10. Bireysel vicdanın ve bireysel özgürlüğün yüceltilmesi; kişinin imanlı olduğu sürece ortaya koyduğu fiillerin Tanrı’ya ulaşma yolunda sergilenmiş insanî edimler olarak değil kendisine bahşedilmiş olan, dolayısıyla hâlihazırda sahip olduğu ilâhî lutfa karşılık duyduğu minnet ve şükranın delili ya da tezahürü olarak algılanması.
Buna göre kendi içinde çeşitlilik göstermesine rağmen Protestanlığın önde gelen iki temel özelliğinden biri sadece Kitâb-ı Mukaddes’in kayıtsız şartsız otorite olarak kabulü, diğeri de kurtuluşun yalnızca ilâhî lutuf sayesinde gerçekleşeceğine yönelik inançtır. Protestanlık’ta insanın “düşüş” tecrübesine, sınırlı ve yardıma muhtaç durumda oluşuna açık vurgu yapılmıştır. Bu anlayışa göre insanoğlu mevcut haliyle Tanrı’nın sûretinde yaratılmanın gerektirdiği misyonu karşılamaktan âcizdir. Bu sebeple Protestanlık’ta bu ilk vurguya aynı paraleldeki bir diğer önemli vurgu, Îsâ Mesîh’in şahsında doruk noktasına ulaştığı üzere Tanrı’nın insanlığa itibarını tekrar kazandırmak için girişimde bulunması ve yardım eli uzatmasına dairdir. Bu kurtarma girişimi, insan kapasitesinden ve her türlü insanî icraattan bağımsız olarak ve onu aşacak şekilde Tanrı’nın imana sahip olanlara ilâhî lutufta bulunması şeklinde anlaşılmıştır. Protestanlık’ta kilise ilâhî lutfun öznesi değil nesnesi olarak görülüp Tanrı ile insan arasında ritüel veya kilise merkezli herhangi bir aracılığın varlığı reddedilmiştir. Ayrıca bütün inananların din/kilise içinde eşit role ve sorumluluğa sahip olduğu ilkesinden hareketle ruhban ya da din adamı şeklinde ayrı bir sınıfın mevcudiyeti meşrû görülmemiştir. Buna göre bütün Protestan oluşumları XVI. yüzyıl reformistlerinin kurucu rolünü benimsemelerinin yanı sıra Îsâ Mesîh’i kurtarıcı ve efendi olarak kabul eder, Kitâb-ı Mukaddes’i ise kurtuluş yolundaki tek ölçü ve bilgi kaynağı olarak görür. Bu suretle Protestanlık, bir yandan kendini hakikatin tek ve yanılmaz temsilcisi olarak gören ve ruhban teşkilâtlanması üzerine temellendirilen Katoliklik’ten, öte yandan kendilerini Patristik geleneğin ve Hıristiyanlığın gerçek vârisleri sayan Ortodoks oluşumlarından ayırır.
Protestanlık genellikle “söz dini” olarak tanımlanmıştır. Zira Protestan anlayışına göre Tanrı kendi sözü (kelâm) vasıtasıyla yaratıp kurtuluşa erdirmekte ve toplumu inşa etmektedir. Buna bağlı olarak Protestan hayatı Tanrı sözünün yayılması ve gerçekleşmesi şeklinde algılanmıştır. Katolik ve Ortodoks ibadetlerinin merkezinde kilise merasimi ve Komünyon âyini yer alırken sade ve basit biçimde icra edilen Protestan ibadetinin dayandığı temel unsur ilâhî sözün aktarıldığı vaazdır. İlâhî söze yönelik bu vurgu, Kitâb-ı Mukaddes üzerine yapılan çalışmaların yanı sıra Protestanlık ve özellikle Batı’daki biçimiyle entelektüel karakter kazandıran düşünce geleneğinin gelişmesinde de önemli bir âmil olmuştur. Nitekim Protestan kilise hayatında teoloji büyük yer işgal etmiş ve teologlar büyük itibar görmüştür. Fakat teolojik rasyonalizme karşı olan ve bunun yerine dindarlığı, dinî tecrübeyi ve belli bir hıristiyan yaşam biçimini öne çıkaran Protestan çevreler de vardır. Nitekim Protestanlık içerisinde inanç konusunda ortaya çıkan farklı yaklaşımlar, bireyler ve gruplar arasında teolojik ve ahlâkî anlayış zenginliğinin oluşmasına yol açmıştır. Kutsal metinlerin anlamı ve teolojik konular üzerine yapılan yoğun tartışmalar daima Protestanlık tarihinin aslî bir unsuru olmuştur. Bu durum, Protestan düşüncesinin zaman içerisinde XVI. yüzyıl reformistlerinin benimsediği, hâlâ Ortaçağ skolastik düşünce geleneğinin izlerini taşıyan bakış açısının üzerine çıkmasını sağlamıştır. Bununla birlikte ilk reformistlerin kastettiği reform anlayışını aşmak yerine onu tam mânasıyla anlama ve uygulama çabasında olanlar da Protestan geleneğinde daima mevcut olmuştur.
Kitâb-ı Mukaddes çalışmaları ve sistematik teolojinin yanı sıra ahlâkî düşünce ve sosyal davranış Protestanlığın bir diğer önemli ilgi alanını oluşturur. Bununla birlikte Protestan anlayışına göre (iyi) eylem kurtuluşu sağlamada tek başına yeterli değildir. Gerek fert gerekse toplum düzeyinde iyi-kötü arasında yapılacak seçim ve inançlı kişinin insanlık ve dünya karşısındaki sorumluluğu İncil’in Îsâ Mesîh’e yönelik şahitliği doğrultusunda yönlendirilmelidir. Protestanlık tarihi boyunca bireysel ahlâk vurgusu, toplumu ve dünyayı yeniden şekillendirme (reform) arzusu, Îsâ Mesîh’in mesajını kişilerin kendi hayatlarına bazan katı biçimde uygulama çabası gibi farklı tarz ve anlayışlar hâkim olmuştur. İmanı dünyaya taşıyıp dinî ve seküler teşebbüsleri birleştirmek suretiyle Tanrı krallığının yolunu hazırlama çabası Protestanlık’ta önemli bir unsurdur. Karşılıksız sevgi anlayışı, hayatın üretken hale getirilmesi, ahlâkî bir erdem olarak bireysel iş gücünün ve sorumluluğun geliştirilmesi de yine Protestan toplumların önemli özelliklerindendir. Ruhbanlığı reddeden Protestan cemaatleri, bilhassa ilk asırlarda aile müessesesinin ve aile hayatının gelişmesinde etkili olmuştur. Batı kültürünün izlerini taşıyan Protestanlık’taki akılcılığa yönelik vurgu ve katı bir ferdî disiplin anlayışı, bazan doğruluğu sadece kendinde görme ve kendini beğenme iddiasını da beraberinde getirmiştir.
Protestanlığın bir diğer önemli özelliği çoğulcu yapıya sahip oluşudur. Roma Katolik kilisesinde ortaya çıkan farklı teolojik bakış açısı heretiklik olarak algılanıp dışlanırken aynı durum Protestanlık içerisinde yine Protestan özelliği taşıyan yeni kiliselerin doğması ile sonuçlanmıştır. Bu sebeple Protestanlık devamlı çoğalan bir mezhepleşmeyi temsil etmektedir. Bununla birlikte Protestanlık dairesi içinde yer alan kiliseler arasında da belli noktalarda ortaya çıkan ayırımlardan bahsetmek mümkündür: Devlet bağlantılı olan ve olmayan kiliseler; reform öncesi dönemin uygulamalarını devam ettiren “yüksek” kiliselere karşılık Katoliklik’le ilişkilendirdikleri çoğu uygulamayı reddeden “aşağı” kiliseler; geleneğin ve teolojik Ortodoksluğun hâkim olduğu muhafazakâr Protestanlık anlayışına karşılık aklın ve bilimsel tenkidin verilerine ve moderniteye daha açık olan liberal Protestanlık anlayışı; benzer şekilde XVII. yüzyıl Protestan Ortodoksluğu’nu devam ettiren eski tip Protestanlığa karşılık moderniteyle daha fazla özdeşleşen neo-Protestanlık; kendi piskoposlarına sahip olan (Lüteryen ve Anglikan) kiliselere karşılık kilise/ihtiyarlar meclisi (sinod) uygulamasını benimseyen (Presbiteryen ve Baptist) kiliseler gibi.
İnanç ve düşünce alanı yanında Protestanlık sosyal eylem noktasında da oldukça zengin bir çeşitlilik sergiler. Diğer hıristiyan kiliselerinde olduğu gibi Protestan kiliseleri başından itibaren hastahane, yetimhane, imarethâne ve huzur evi gibi devletin yapamadığı yardım hizmetlerinde oldukça faal olmuştur. Söz konusu sosyal yardım zamanla dinî ve kurtuluş bağlantılı bir muhteva kazanmış, aynı zamanda bilhassa Batı toplumlarında siyasî tarzda yorumlanmak suretiyle bir nevi hıristiyan sosyalizmi ya da sosyal İncil algısı şeklinde ortaya konmuştur. XIX. yüzyıldan itibaren sosyal yardım hizmetleri daha geniş ölçeğe taşınmış ve Batılı olmayan ülkelerde Protestan misyonerliğine kapı aralamıştır. Fakat söz konusu misyonerlik faaliyetleri Katoliklik’te olduğu gibi manastır teşkilâtlanması biçiminde değil daha ziyade ferdî teşebbüsler ya da bazan kilise destekli sair teşkilâtlar doğrultusunda gerçekleşmiştir. Protestan misyoner teşkilâtlarının başında Ortadoğu ve Anadolu’da etkili olan American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions ile (Boston, 1810) Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church (1837) gelir. Buna paralel olarak bilhassa Almanya, İngiltere ve Kuzey Amerika’da dünya çapında bir Protestan misyon anlayışı gelişmiştir. XIX. yüzyıldaki kölelikle mücadele hareketi ve daha sonraki biçimiyle ırkçılık karşıtı hareket, yine XX. yüzyıldaki insan hakları, sosyal adalet ve barış yanlısı akımlar bu misyonun uzantılarındandır. Söz konusu sosyal eylemler ve akımlar bazan mevcut siyasî ve ekonomik dengeler tarafından desteklenirken bazan da bu dengelerle çatışma halinde olmuştur. Bizzat Protestanlık içerisinde mevcut olan çeşitlilik tecrübesi ve bir arada yaşama ihtiyacından hareketle önde gelen Protestanlar, kiliseler ve mezhepler arası birlik (ekümeniklik) ve dinler arası diyalog faaliyetlerine de öncülük etmiştir. 1910’daki World Missionary Conference for Evangelism ile başlayan söz konusu girişim 1948’de Protestan, Anglikan ve Doğu Ortodoks kiliselerini bir araya getiren World Council of Churches isimli teşkilâtın kurulmasıyla sonuçlanmıştır.
Günümüzde 20.000’in üzerinde Protestan kilise ve cemaatleşmesi mevcut olup genellikle bunlar dört ana Protestan oluşumu altında sınıflandırılır. 1. Klasik Protestan Hıristiyanlığı. Beyaz Protestanlar’ın oluşturduğu ve doğrudan XVI. yüzyıl reform hareketine dayanan bu grup 8000 civarında farklı kilise ve cemaatten meydana gelip daha ziyade Avrupa, Kuzey Amerika ve Avustralya’da yer alır. En büyük kesimini Lüteryen ve Presbiteryen kiliseler oluşturur. Avrupa’daki kiliseler genellikle devletle az veya çok bağlantı halindedir. 2. Afrika, Latin Amerika ve Asya’daki yerli Protestan cemaatleri. Büyük ölçüde Avrupa ve Kuzey Amerika’dan gelen misyonerlerin faaliyetleri sonucunda üçüncü dünya ülkelerinde gelişen ve sayıları 10.000 civarında olan bu kilise ve cemaatler Batı kiliselerinden bağımsız olma iddiasına sahiptir. 3. Anglikan Hıristiyanlığı. 1534’te İngiltere Kralı VIII. Henry’nin kurduğu millî kiliseye (Church of England) dayanan ve Anglikan Birliği çatısı altında toplanan bu kiliseler çoğunlukla Kraliyet Birliği’ne bağlı bölgelerde yer almakla birlikte Kuzey Amerika’daki Episkopal kiliseleri de içine alır. 225 civarında kiliseden oluşan bu grup kendi içinde büyük bir farklılık sergiler. Çoğu Katolik uygulamalarını devam ettiren ve kendilerini Protestan olarak tanımlamaktan kaçınan grup “yüksek kiliseler” olarak adlandırılırken Katolik uygulamaları reddeden grup ise “aşağı kiliseler” diye adlandırılır. 4. Marjinal Protestanlar. Sayıları yaklaşık 1350 olan ve Yehova Şahitleri gibi oluşumları içeren bu grup, farklı mezhepsel özelliklere sahip olmakla birlikte kendilerini Hıristiyanlık dairesi içinde, fakat Katolik veya Ortodoks anlayışın dışında gören cemaatlerden oluşur. Eski Katolikler gibi kendilerini Roma Katolik kilisesi dışında tutan, ancak süreç olarak Protestanlık’tan bağımsız biçimde gelişen bazı Katolik cemaatler bu gruba dahil değildir.
Protestanlık XIX. yüzyıla kadar Kuzeybatı Avrupa ve Kuzey Amerika bölgeleriyle sınırlı kalmış ve bu süre zarfında İslâm’la kayda değer bir temas geliştirmemiştir. Fakat XIX. yüzyıldan itibaren misyonerlik hareketiyle farklı bölgelere yayılmış, Ortadoğu’daki bazı Ortodoks ve Katolik grupların Protestanlığa geçmesiyle beraber ilk Protestan-müslüman münasebeti başlamıştır. Özellikle XX. yüzyılın ortalarından itibaren genelde Hıristiyanlığın, özelde ise Protestanlığın güney yarım küreye yayılması ve bu bölgelerde yerli versiyonlar oluşturmasıyla birlikte Protestanlığın İslâm’la münasebeti daha da artmıştır. Osmanlı topraklarında bilhassa American Board’a bağlı Protestan misyonerleri yoluyla başlangıçta İstanbul, İzmir, Trabzon ve Bursa’da, daha sonra Doğu ve Orta Anadolu ile güney illerinde çeşitli Protestan birlikleri, okul ve kiliseler oluşturulmuştur. I. Dünya Savaşı sırasında ve Cumhuriyet’in kurulmasından sonra Anadolu’daki misyoner faaliyetleri sekteye uğramış, fakat Protestan oluşumu çeşitli kiliseler ve okullar yoluyla varlığını sürdürmüştür. Günümüzde İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir, Bursa ve Antakya’da Ermeni, Rum, Süryânî, Türk ve yabancı (Alman vb.) Protestan gruplarına ait kiliseler ve çeşitli şehirlerde oluşturulmuş dua evleri mevcuttur. Bu kiliselerin çoğu Türkiye Bağımsız Protestan Kiliseler Birliği’ne bağlıdır.
Protestanlık, hıristiyan dünyasında Katoliklik ve Ortodoksluk’la mukayese edildiğinde sayıca en küçük grubu oluşturur. Günümüz Protestan nüfusu adına kesin rakam vermek güç olmakla birlikte Fransız din sosyologu Jean Bauberot’nun 1985 yılına ait bir araştırmasına göre dünya Protestanları’nın bölgelere göre dağılımları şöyledir:
Avrupa 115 milyon Kuzey Amerika 110 milyon Afrika 80 milyon Asya 50 milyon Avustralya, Yeni Zelanda ve Okyanusya 14 milyon Latin Amerika 12 milyon Toplam 381 milyon
Protestan mezheplerinin sayıca devamlı artmasına karşılık Protestan grupları arasında çeşitli birleşme veya gruplaşma teşebbüsleri söz konusudur. Dünya Kiliseler Konseyi’nin yanı sıra artık çoğu ülkede Protestan kilise ve cemaatlerini temsilen National Council of Churches tarzında teşkilâtlar kurulmaktadır. Yine Anglikan Kiliseler birliğine benzer şekilde Lüteryen, Presbiteryen, Baptist vb. kiliseler dünya çapındaki birliklerini oluşturmaktadır. Öte yandan farklı Protestan kilise ve cemaatleri arasında kurulan ve dünya Protestanlar’ı için evrensel düzeyde platformlar oluşturan Hıristiyan Gençler ya da Hıristiyan Kadınlar Derneği veya Dünya Hıristiyan Öğrenci Federasyonu gibi teşkilâtlar söz konusudur.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
P. Tillich, The Protestant Era, Chicago 1948. J. Dillenberger – Cl. Welch, Protestant Christianity Interpreted Through its Development, New York 1954. G. W. Forell, The Protestant Faith, New Jersey 1960. R. McAfee Brown, The Spirit of Protestantism, New York 1961. C. W. Kegley, Protestantism in Transition, New York 1965. E. G. Leonard, A History of Protestantism, London 1965-68, I-III. M. E. Marty, Protestantism, New York 1972. Cl. Welch, Protestant Thought in the Nineteenth Century, New Haven-London 1972-85, I-II. World Christian Encyclopedia: A Comparative Study of Churches and Religions in the Modern World (ed. D. B. Barrett), New York 1982. J. Baubérot, “Le Protestantisme”, Le Grand Atlas des Religions, Paris 1988, s. 113-115. W. R. Ward, The Protestant Evangelical Awakening, Cambridge 1992. Encyclopédie du protestantisme (ed. P. Gisel), Paris 1995. Mustafa Numan Malkoç, İstanbul’daki Protestan Kiliseler, İstanbul 1999. Ali Erbaş, Hristiyanlık’ta Reform ve Protestanlık Tarihi, İstanbul 2004.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2007 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 34. cildinde, 351-354 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.