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Sözlükte “fert, kişi, birey” anlamındaki şahstan oluşturulmuş yapma masdar olan şahsiyyetin kökü şuhûs “yükselmek, uzaktan görünmek”, şahâset ise “irileşmek, büyümek” demektir (Lisânü’l-ʿArab, “şḫṣ” md.). Şahıs bu anlamlarıyla felsefe ve mantık kitaplarında kullanılırsa da (meselâ bk. İbn Sînâ, s. 341, 387, 595-596, 705, 708) şahsiyet kelimesi modern psikolojinin bir terimi olup buna klasik İslâmî kaynaklarda rastlanmaz. Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de ve hadislerde bu kökten türemiş kelimeler geçmekle birlikte (M. F. Abdülbâkī, el-Muʿcem, “şḫṣ” md.; Wensinck, el-Muʿcem, “şḫṣ” md.) bunların şahsiyetle anlam ilişkisi yoktur. Öte yandan gerek Kur’an’da ve hadislerde gerekse İslâm kaynaklarında insan kişiliğiyle ilgili bazı kavramlar yer alır. Bunların en kapsamlısı olan nefs sözlükte “kişi, şahıs, zat, benlik” gibi anlamlarda kullanılmakta (Lisânü’l-ʿArab, “nfs” md.), terim halinde kişiliğin iç yapısını, bedenî ve ruhî boyutuyla insan benliğinin eğilimlerini, ruhsal hayatın bütününü ve beşerî kişiliği ifade etmektedir. Benlik ve kişiliği oluşturan bütün yapılar, yeti (meleke) ve yetenekler, fonksiyon ve süreçler nefis kavramına girer (Muʿcemü elfâẓi’l-Ḳurʾân, I, 521-522; İbn Kayyim, s. 218-219). Bunun yanında tab‘, garîze, mizâc, hulk, seciye, şâkile gibi kişiliğin çeşitli yönlerini anlatan kelimeler İslâm kaynaklarında geçmektedir. Sözlükte “yaratılış, tabiat; içgüdü” gibi anlamlara gelen garîze terim olarak “kişilik özelliklerinin kaynağını meydana getiren meleke, bir canlının tabiatından kaynaklanan eğilimlerinin bütünü” diye tanımlanır. Garîze gibi tab‘ ve tabiat da kişiliğin doğuştan gelen temel unsurlarını ifade eder. Fahreddin er-Râzî’ye göre insan akıl, hikmet, tabiat ve şehvetten oluşan bir varlıktır (en-Nefs ve’r-rûḥ, s. 4). İslâm ahlâkçıları insanın her bakımdan gelişip olgunlaşmasının tabiat ve sanat denilen iki temele dayandığını söyler. Allah vergisi ve irade dışı olan tabiat doğuştan sahip olunan özellikler, yetenekler ve davranış eğilimleridir, bunların her birine garîze denir. Sanat ise kişinin kendi tercihleri, yaşantıları ve etkileşimleri sonucu elde ettiği ikinci tabiat ve karakterdir (Kınalızade, I, 150-153; Mehmed Fâzıl, s. 66-67). Şahsiyetle ilgili diğer bir terim hulktur (çoğulu ahlâk) ve “tabiat, yaratılış, seciye” anlamlarına gelir (Lisânü’l-ʿArab, “ḫlḳ” md.); daha çok “yerleşik huy, karakter, tabiatın gelişmiş şekli” diye tanımlanır. Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de bir âyette geçen şâkile (el-İsrâ 17/84) sözlükte “hissî ve mânevî sûret” demektir (Muʿcemü elfâẓi’l-Ḳurʾân, II, 30); terim olarak “tabiat, âdet, ahlâk, seciye, mizaç, karakter” gibi daha çok ahlâkî kişilikle ilgili anlamlarda kullanılmaktadır (Elmalılı, V, 3197).
Batı dillerinde şahsiyet kavramı “personality” (İng.), “personalité” (Fr.) kelimeleriyle ifade edilir. Şahsiyet ve onunla ilgili benlik, kendilik, kimlik gibi kavramlar Türkçe’de ve modern Arapça’da kullanılmaktadır. Karakter ise daha çok ahlâk ağırlıklı bir anlam içerir. Şahsiyetle karakterin en önemli farkı, şahsiyetin bir kişiyi tanımlayan ve hem doğuştan gelen hem de sonradan kazanılan özellikleri ihtiva etmesi, karakterin ise kalıtımsal etkiler, soydan gelen özellikler ve olgunlaşmanın bütününden oluşmasıdır (Sillamy, s. 52-53). Buna göre karakter şahsiyet kavramına dahildir. Karakterli insan davranışlarını toplumun değer yargılarına uygun biçimde yönetebilen, değerler sistemini içselleştirmiş olan kimsedir. İslâmî literatürde yeni bir kavram olan karakteri müslüman müelliflerin bazıları seciye (İsmail Fenni, s. 77-78; Tunç, s. 315), bazıları hulk ile karşılamıştır. Ahmed Naim’e göre karakter Arapça’daki hulk kelimesinin tam karşılığıdır, bunu seciye ile karşılamak doğru olmaz; çünkü karakterler gibi ahlâkın da iyisi ve kötüsü bulunur, seciyenin ise kötüsü yoktur (Fonsegrive, s. 55). Modern Arapça sözlüklerde karakterin hulk kelimesiyle karşılandığı görülmektedir (meselâ bk. Hifnî, I, 132; Bedevî, s. 56, 279). Bu yaklaşımdan hareketle ahlâk ilmini “insan karakterinden bahseden ilim” diye tarif edenler olmuştur (Kam, s. 9, 11).
Başta ahlâk ilmiyle ilgilenenler olmak üzere müslüman âlimler insan şahsiyetinin yapısı, gelişimi ve bununla ilgili kavramlar üzerinde günümüzde de geçerli olan görüş ve değerlendirmeler ortaya koymuşlardır. Nitekim şahsiyetin ve karakterin hem doğuştan getirilen hem de çevre ile etkileşim içerisinde geliştirilip kazanılan özelliklerden meydana geldiğine dair zamanımızdaki anlayış müslüman âlimler tarafından da benimsenmiştir. Gazzâlî’ye göre insan tabiatı dört unsurdan oluşur ve bunlar onun bütün psikolojik eğilimlerinin, ilgi ve davranışlarının kaynağını teşkil eder. Rabbâniyet, behîmiyet (hayvâniyet), sebûiyet ve şeytâniyet diye sıralanan bu unsurlardan rabbâniyet bağımsızlık, üstünlük, başarılı olma, engelleri aşma, amacına ulaşma, önder olma, sevilme ve beğenilme gibi istek ve eğilimlerin çıkış kaynağı, psikolojinin adlandırmasıyla “kendini gerçekleştirme” melekesidir. Behîmiyet beslenme, boşaltım, teneffüs, cinsellik gibi fizyolojik ihtiyaçların tatmini yönündeki davranışların esasıdır; bütün bu istekler şehvet kelimesiyle ifade edilir. Sebûiyet öfkelenme, saldırma, tahrip etme gibi davranışların kaynağıdır; buna gazap gücü de denir; günümüz psikolojisi bunu “saldırganlık dürtüsü” diye adlandırır. Şeytâniyet aldatma, hile yapma, kötülüğü iyilik gibi göstermeye çalışma, akıl ve düşünceyi kötülük yolunda kullanma eğilimlerini meydana getirir. Gazap ve şehvet bakımından hayvanla insan tabiatı ortak iken benlik bilinci, akıl ve düşünce ile kötülük yapma gücü yönünden insan tamamen kendine özgü bir türdür (İḥyâʾ, III, 10). Aynı şekilde İbn Haldûn’un, çeşitli ırk ve milletlerde görülen farklı mizaç ve karakter tiplerinin oluşmasında iklimler, besinler, geçinme ve beslenme biçimleri gibi faktörlerin etkisinin bulunduğu yönündeki tezi bugün geçerliliğini korumaktadır. Ona göre kişilerin uğraştıkları iş ve meslek kollarının, toplumsal konumlarının kişilik ve karakterinin şekillenmesinde önemli etkileri bulunmaktadır. İbn Haldûn bu açıdan çeşitli mesleklere göre şahsiyet ve karakter tahlilleri yapmaktadır. Ayrıca toplumdaki yönetim tarzının insanların kişilik ve karakter yapıları üzerine önemli etkileri vardır. Eğer yönetim âdil ve yumuşaksa böyle bir yönetim altında yaşayan kimselerde kendine güven duygusu gelişir. Buna karşılık zulme, zor ve baskıya dayanan, aşırı otoriteye ve cezaya başvuran bir yönetimde yaşayan kimselerde korku hâkim olur; direnme ve metanet gücü ortadan kalkar, aşağılık duygusu, kendine güvensizlik ve bağımlılık eğilimi gelişir. Böyle bir şahsiyet yapısıyla yetişen bireylerin oluşturduğu toplulukta yenileşme ve gelişme olmaz; tutuculuk, katılık ve gerilik hâkim olur (Muḳaddime, s. 82-91, 123-127, 372-374, 394, 396, 399).
İslâm âlimleri eski milletlerin geliştirdiği, insan şahsiyeti ve karakteri konusuna yoğunlaşan bazı bilgi dallarına da ilgi duymuşlar, bunları kendi geleneklerine katmışlardır. Aristo’ya atfedilen Phsionomica adlı eserde insandaki sabit yüz çizgileri incelenerek şahsiyet ve karakter şekilleri hakkında sonuçlar çıkarılmaya çalışılmıştır. Yunan filozofları arasında yerleşmiş olan bu görüşte hâkim eğilim hayvanların çehre biçimleri, onlarda bâriz şekilde görülen mizaç ve karakter vasıfları ve bunlara tekabül eden bedenî özelliklerle insanların aynı türden özellikleri arasında bir uygunluk bulmaya çalışma ve bu sayede insanların karakterleri hakkında bir hüküm verme yönündedir. Bazı fizyonomi bilginleri, bu araştırmaları çeşitli milletlere ve ırklara genelleştirip ortak çehre şekillerinden onlara has millî karakterleri meydana çıkarmaya uğraşmışlardır. İslâm dünyasında “ilm-i sîmâ, ilmü’l-esrâr, ilmü kıyâfeti’l-beşer, ilmü’l-firâse” gibi isimler altında birçok eserin varlığı bilinmektedir. Bunların konusu insanın organlarının özelliklerinden ve dış görünüşünden onun huy, mizaç, şahsiyet ve karakter özelliklerini tesbit etmektir. Yarı ilmî, yarı edebî olan, istidlâl ve akıl yürütmeden çok sezgi, tahmin, şahsî gözlem ve tecrübeye dayanan bu bilgilerin yer aldığı çalışmalar yakın zamanlara kadar sürdürülmüştür. Ya‘kūb b. İshak el-Kindî’nin Risâle fi’l-firâse adlı eseri bu konuda yazılmış ilk örneklerden biridir. Fahreddin er-Râzî’nin Kitâbü’l-Firâse’si türün en iyi eserlerinden kabul edilmektedir. Muhyiddin İbnü’l-Arabî, el-Fütûḥâtü’l-Mekkiyye’nin 148 ve et-Tedbîrâtü’l-ilâhiyye’nin sekizinci bölümünü bu konuya ayırmıştır. Erzurumlu İbrâhim Hakkı’nın Kıyâfetnâme’si bu türdeki eserlerin en ünlüsüdür (bk. KIYAFETNÂME). Bu eserler günümüz bilim çevreleri tarafından benimsenmemektedir. Bugün şahsiyet araştırmaları psikanalitik, ayırıcı özellik, biyolojik yaklaşım, insancıl yaklaşım, davranışsal/sosyal öğrenme yaklaşımı, bilişsel yaklaşım gibi teoriler çerçevesinde sürdürülmektedir. Bedenle irtibatlı yorumlara ise en çok psikanalitik teoride içgüdüler ve dürtüler, biyolojik teoride genetik kalıtıma bağlı mizaç karakterleri seviyesinde yer verilmektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Muʿcemü elfâẓi’l-Ḳurʾâni’l-Kerîm, Kahire 1390/1970, I, 521-522; II, 30; İbn Sînâ, en-Necât (nşr. M. Takī Dânişpejûh), Tahran 1364 hş./1985, s. 341, 387, 595-596, 705, 708; Gazzâlî, İḥyâʾü ʿulûmi’d-dîn, İstanbul 1318, III, 10; Fahreddin er-Râzî, en-Nefs ve’r-rûḥ (nşr. M. Sagīr Hasan el-Ma‘sûmî), Lahor 1388/1968, s. 4, 51-74; İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, er-Rûḥ, Riyad 1386/1966, s. 218-219; İbn Haldûn, Muḳaddime, Beyrut 1402/1982, s. 82-91, 123-127, 372-374, 394-396, 399; Kınalızâde Ali Efendi, Ahlâk-ı Alâî, Bulak 1248, I, 58-65, 150-153; Mehmed Fâzıl, İlm-i Ahlâk, İstanbul 1329, s. 66-67; G. L. Fonsegrive, Mebâdî-i Felsefeden Birinci Kitap: İlmü’n-nefs (trc. Ahmed Naim), İstanbul 1332, s. 55, ayrıca bk. Lugatçe; Ömer Ferit Kam, Mebâdi-i Felsefeden İlm-i Ahlâk , Ankara 1339-41, s. 9-11; İsmail Fenni [Ertuğrul], Lugatçe-i Felsefe , İstanbul 1341, s. 77-78; Mustafa Şekip Tunç, Felsefe Dersleri: Ruhiyat, İstanbul 1926, s. 314-324; Elmalılı, Hak Dini, V, 3197; E. Kretschmer, Beden Yapısı ve Karakter (trc. Mümtaz Turhan), İstanbul 1949; H. Piéron, Vocabulaire de la psychologie, Paris 1963, s. 56-57, 291, 396; N. Sillamy, Dictionnaire de la psychologie, Paris 1967, s. 52-53, 216-217, 276; Feriha Baymur, Genel Psikoloji, İstanbul 1978, s. 254 vd.; Abdülmün‘im el-Hifnî, Mevsûʿatü ʿilmi’n-nefs ve’t-taḥlîlü’n-nefsî, Beyrut 1978, I, 132; Ahmed Zekî Bedevî, Muʿcemü muṣṭalaḥâti’l-ʿulûmi’l-ictimâʿiyye, Beyrut 1982, s. 56, 279, 311-312, 422; Doğan Cüceloğlu, İnsan ve Davranışı, İstanbul 1991, s. 403-407; Ahmet Avni Konuk, Tedbîrât-ı İlâhiyye Tercüme ve Şerhi (haz. Mustafa Tahralı), İstanbul 1992, s. 217-226; E. Spranger, İnsan Tipleri: Bir Kişilik Psikolojisi (trc. Ahmet Aydoğan), İstanbul 2001, s. 271 vd.; Hayati Hökelekli – Turgay Gündüz, “Üstün Yetenekli Çocukların Karakter Özellikleri ve Değerler Eğitimi”, 1. Türkiye Üstün Yetenekli Çocuklar Kongresi: Bildiriler Kitabı, İstanbul 2004, s. 131 vd.; J. M. Burger, Kişilik (trc. İnan Deniz – Erguvan Sarıoğlu), İstanbul 2006, s. 22-25; J. Feist – G. J. Feist, Theory of Personality, New York 2006; Âmil Çelebioğlu, “Kıyâfe(t) İlmi ve Akşemseddinzâde Hamdullah Hamdi ile Erzurumlu İbrahim Hakkı’nın Kıyâfetnâmeleri”, EFAD, sy. 11 (1979), s. 305-323.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2010 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 38. cildinde, 297-298 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.