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SAID, Edward William Skip to content (1935-2003)
Oryantalizme yaptığı eleştirilerle tanınan Filistin asıllı bilim adamı.
1 Kasım 1935’te Batı Kudüs’te hıristiyan bir ailenin çocuğu olarak dünyaya geldi ve bir Episcopol (Anglikan-Protestan) olarak vaftiz edildi. Babası varlıklı bir iş adamı olan Kudüslü Wadie Said, annesi Nâsıralı Hilda Mûsâ’dır. Ailesi, Aralık 1947’de Filistin’den Mısır’a göç ederek Kahire’ye yerleşti. Önce Kahire Amerikan Okulu’nda, ardından Kahire Victoria Koleji’nde okudu. 1951’de buradan ayrılıp orta öğrenimini Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nde Massachusetts’teki Mount Hermon School’da tamamladı. Lisans eğitimini Princeton Üniversitesi’nde gördü (1953-1957). Harvard Üniversitesi’nde yüksek lisans (1960), İngiliz edebiyatı alanında doktora (1964) çalışması yaptı. Columbia Üniversitesi’nde 1963’te araştırmacı, 1965’te asistan, 1968’de doçent ve 1970’te profesör oldu; 1989’da Beşerî Bilimler Old Dominion Foundation profesörlüğüne getirildi. 1974’te Harvard’da Karşılaştırmalı Edebiyat Bölümü’nde misafir öğretim üyesi, 1975-1976’da Stanford Davranış Bilimleri İleri Araştırmalar Merkezi’nde burslu araştırmacı ve 1979’da Johns Hopkins Üniversitesi Beşerî Bilimler Bölümü’nde misafir öğretim üyesi olarak çalıştı. Bir dönem Arab Studies Quarterly dergisinin editörlüğünü yaptı. New York’taki Dış İlişkiler Konseyi, Amerikan Sanatlar Akademisi ve PEN gibi kuruluşların yönetim kurulu üyeliklerinde bulundu. 1976’da Harvard Üniversitesi Bowdoin ödülünü, 1976 ve 1994’te Lionel Trilling ödülünü ve 1983’te Rene Wellek ödülünü aldı. 1977-1991 yılları arasında Filistin Ulusal Konseyi’nin üyesi olarak görev yaptı. Lösemi hastalığına yakalanan, uzun ve acılı bir tedavi dönemi geçiren Said 23 Eylül 2003’te New York’ta öldü.
Hıristiyan Arap bir ailenin çocuğu olarak evinde Arapça, dışarıda İngilizce konuşan, Batı okullarında eğitimini tamamlayan ve akademik hayata Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nde katılan Edward Said bu özellikleri sebebiyle kendisini ne bütünüyle bir Arap ne de bütünüyle bir Batılı gibi hissedebilmiştir. Bu sebeple otobiyografisine “Dünyalar Arasında” başlığını koyduğu gibi hâtıratını içeren kitaba Yersiz Yurtsuz ismini vermiştir. Said, Kahire Victoria Koleji’ndeki eğitimine ilişkin hâtıralarından söz ederken şunları yazar: “Bir İngiliz okul çocuğu gibi düşünmek ve inanmak üzere yetiştirildiysem de, aynı zamanda üstleri tarafından bulunduğu konumu, yani İngiliz olmaya özenmeyecek şekilde eğitilen bir yabancı, Avrupalı olmayan bir öteki olduğumu bilecek şekilde de yetiştirilmiştim … Aynı zamanda hem ‘pis Arap’ hem de Anglikan olmak sürekli bir iç savaş içinde olmak demekti” (Kış Ruhu, s. 17). Said’in hayat hikâyesine ait bu özellikler onun bütün çalışmalarında etkisini göstermiş gibidir. Gerek doktora tezinin konusu olan Joseph Conrad’ın kişisel özellikleriyle kendi serüveni gerekse Oryantalizm ve Entelektüel adlı çalışmaları başta olmak üzere birçok çalışmasının kendi hayat hikâyesinden belli izler taşıdığı ve kişisel serüveniyle paralellikler gösterdiği kolayca tesbit edilebilir.
Said, Oryantalizm adlı çalışmasıyla dünya çapında bir üne kavuşmuşsa da akademik hayatını mukayeseli edebiyat incelemeleri, edebiyat kuramı, edebî eleştiri alanlarına hasretmiştir. Bunların yanı sıra bir Filistinli olarak özellikle 1967 savaşından sonra Filistin meselesiyle daha yakından ilgilenen, kendi kimliğinin daha çok farkına varan, Amerikan kamuoyunda Filistin meselesinin bir tür sözcülüğü görevini üstlenen faal bir yanı da bulunmaktadır. Edebiyat kuramı ve eleştiri alanında gerçekleştirdiği incelemeler Oryantalizm’de, Kültür ve Emperyalizm’de, Haberlerin Ağında İslam’da, Filistin’in Sorunu’nda yapmış olduğu çözümlemelerin felsefî temellerini oluşturur. Auerbach, Spitzer ve Curtius’un temsil ettiği hümanist filoloji geleneği, Vico’nun, Gramsci’nin ve Lukacs’ın tarihselciliği, Foucault’nun bilginin arkeolojisi ve bilgi-iktidar gibi analiz araçları, Fanon’un antiemperyalizmi, Marks’ın radikalizmi, Swift, Blackmur, Chomsky, Nietzsche ve Adorno’nun birçok kavram ya da yaklaşımı Said’in entelektüel ve felsefî birikiminin arka planını teşkil eder. Onun tek bir eleştiri ya da felsefî söylemin takipçisi olduğu söylenemez. Said, sözü edilen eleştirmen ve düşünürlerin üretiminden serbest biçimde yararlanarak kendine özgü bir çerçeve geliştirmeye çalışmıştır. Edebiyat eleştirisi alanındaki dört temel yaklaşımı (pratik eleştiri, akademik edebiyat tarihi, edebî beğeni ve yorum, edebiyat teorisi) “profesyonel uzmanlık kültü”nün, yani uzmanlaşmanın tuzağına düştüğü gerekçesiyle reddeden Said eleştirisinin merkezine dünyevîlik ve laiklik kavramlarını yerleştirir (The World, s. 1-30; ayrıca bk. Ashcroft – Ahluwalia, s. 31-56). Ona göre metinler belli koşullarda toplumsal ve kültürel bir dünya içinde üretilir ve aynı zamanda bu dünyaya müdahalede bulunur. Derrida’nın anlamın ertelenmesine, yorumun sonsuzluğuna ilişkin teklifini de kabul etmeyen Said’e göre metinler kendi dünyevîliklerini bildirir.
Eserleri. 1. Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography (Harvard 1966). Yazarın ilk kitabı olup Conrad’ın mektuplarıyla eserleri arasındaki bağları sorgulayan doktora tezinin genişletilmiş şeklidir. Said, psikolojik eleştirinin güçlü bir örneği olarak nitelenen bu eserinde Conrad’ın düşünceleriyle onun kültürünü besleyen sömürgeci güçler arasındaki sıkıntılı bağları ortaya koymaya gayret eder. 2. Beginnings: Intention and Method (New York 1975). 1976’da Columbia Üniversitesi’nin Lionel Trilling ödülünü kazanan bu kitabında Said, sanat eserinin ya da sanat bilgisinin üretiminde rol oynayan değişik anlayışların rolünü keşfetmeye çalışır. Edebî eleştiriyi tarih, felsefe, yapısalcılık ve eleştirel teoriyle zenginleştirdiği eserinde başlangıç ile (beginning) köken (origin) arasında bir ayırım yapar. İkincisinde ilâhîlik, mitsellik ve ayrıcalık, ilkinde laiklik, beşerî bir üretim ve sürekli bir yeniden sorgulama olduğunu düşünmektedir. XVIII ve XIX. yüzyıllar boyunca romanın Batı edebiyat kültüründe, sanatta, tecrübede ve bilgide belirleyici, kurumsal ve uzmanlaşmış bir rolün başlangıçlarını sunan en önemli uğraş olduğu kanaatindedir. Bu düşüncesinin izlerini XIX. yüzyıl sonu ile XX. yüzyıl başlarında bulur, başlangıçlar sorununu eleştirel söylemde ve Fransız yapısalcılarının eserlerinden hareketle keşfetmeye çalışır. Bu arayışını Dickens, Conrad, Hardy, T. E. Lawrence, Nietzsche, Freud, Vico ve Foucault’nun çalışmaları üzerinden gerçekleştirmeye uğraşır. 3. The World, the Text, and the Critic (Cambridge 1983). Haziran 1983’te Amerikan Mukayeseli Edebiyat Derneği’nin Rene Wellek ödülünü kazanan eser, Said’in 1968-1983 yılları arasında çeşitli akademik dergilerde yayımlanmış, İslâm’dan Jonathan Swift ve Joseph Conrad’a kadar birçok farklı konuda kaleme alınmış on iki makalesinin bir araya getirilmesiyle oluşmuştur. Said’in eserlerinde ortaya çıkan eleştiri anlayışının dayandığı felsefî temelleri görme açısından önemli yazıları barındıran, modern toplumda eleştirinin kazandığı yeni anlamlar üzerine sorular soran ve cevaplarını arayan bu derlemenin bazı yazıları Türkçe’ye çevrilmiştir (Kış Ruhu, bk. bibl.). 4. Orientalism (New York 1978). Edward Said, “paradigma kurucu bir eser” olarak değerlendirilen bu çalışmasında Avrupa’nın Doğu ile bağlantılı kültürel, siyasal ve ekonomik çıkarlarından kaynaklanan, kökü çok eskilere uzanan bir yazı geleneğini inceler. Foucault’nun terminolojisinin de yardımı ile bilginin nesnel değil siyasal niteliğini vurgulayıp İngiltere, Fransa ve daha sonra Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nde gelişen oryantalist çalışmalarla bu ülkelerin Ortadoğu’daki emperyalist çıkarları arasındaki bağlantıyı göstermeye çalışan Said, bu geleneği, Avrupa’nın çok daha kapsamlı iktidar ve egemenlik yapılarının harekete geçirdiği bir kültürel güç uygulaması şeklinde değerlendirir. Eserin özellikle Ortadoğu toplumlarını inceleme konusu olarak alan akademik disiplinler üzerindeki etkisi çok büyük olmuş, bu etki, Ortadoğu ile sınırlı kalmayarak diğer Batı dışı toplumların kültürünü ve tarihini konu edinen alanlara da yayılmıştır. Postkolonyal incelemeler, sub-altern araştırmalar, feminist teori vb. bu etkinin yayıldığı alanlardır. Said’in, Orientalism’in yayımlanmasından sonraki yaklaşık yirmi beş yıllık zaman diliminde çeşitli akademik disiplinlerdeki bu muazzam etkisi sarsıcı eleştirilere tâbi tuttuğu oryantalistlerin ciddi tepkisiyle karşılaşmıştır. En bilineni bu “rafine kültür”ün güçlü temsilcisi Bernard Lewis’ten gelmiştir. Lewis âdeta Said karşıtı bir kampın oluşumuna ön ayak olmuş, bu kamp ciddi sağlık problemleriyle uğraştığı bir dönemde Said’le uğraşmaya devam etmiş, akademik hayattan dışlanması ve etkisinin sınırlanması, hatta silinmesi için her türlü girişimi yapmaktan geri kalmamıştır. Said’in bu çalışması Batı eleştirisi veya Doğu/İslâm savunması olarak da algılanmış ve yaygınlaştırılmıştır. Bu kanaatin oluşmasında yazarın Filistinli oluşunun ve Filistin meselesine olan ilgisini ısrarla sürdürmesinin etkili olduğu muhakkaktır. Said’in bu şekilde algılanmasında, Batı’nın -Avrupalı önde gelen oryantalistlerin de itiraf etme cesareti gösterdikleri- tek ciddi ve gerçek alternatifinin İslâm olduğu gerçeğinin de önemli bir payı vardır. Eserin İslâmcı dalganın yükselişte olduğu bir döneme rastlaması ve İslâm dünyasının entelektüelleri tarafından hararetle sahiplenilmesi bu imajı beslemiştir. Ancak bu imajın yaygınlaşmasında, Batılı akademisyenlerin Said’in eleştirilerini tartışmak yerine onu Batı karşıtı / terörist kamp içerisine yerleştirerek mahkûm etme stratejilerinin de önemli payının olduğu muhakkaktır. Özellikle bu ikinci husus Said’e yönelen -Lewis öncülüğündeki kamptan gelen- ciddi entelektüel baskının sebebi ve en önemli bahanesi olmuştur. Bu baskının izlerini, Said’in Orientalism’i yayımladıktan sonra kendisine yöneltilmiş eleştirilere cevap vermek amacıyla kaleme aldığı yazılarında ve röportajlarında görmek mümkündür. Gerek Orientalism’de gerekse de Orientalism’in yayımlanmasından sonraki tartışmalar esnasında verdiği cevaplarda Said’in dile getirdiği hususlar onun Batı karşıtı olduğu şeklindeki iddiayı destekler mahiyette değildir. Çünkü her şeyden önce Said, Doğu ve Batı gibi kavramsallaştırmaların karşısında olduğunu ifade etmektedir. “Doğu, Doğu Değildir” başlıklı yazısında şöyle diyor: “İnsan, yazarı ve tezleriyle açıkça özcülük karşıtı, Doğu ve Batı gibisinden her tür kesin adlandırma konusunda kökten kuşkucu ve Doğu ile İslâmiyet’i savunmaktan hatta tartışmaktan adamakıllı kaçınan bir kitaba ilişkin bu karikatürleştirici saptırmaları da ne yapacağını bilemiyor” (Varlık, sy. 1061 [1996], s. 42). Eser Nezih Uzel (Oryantalizm: Sömürgeciliğin Keşif Kolu, İstanbul 1982) ve Berna Ülner (Şarkiyatçılık: Batının Şark Anlayışları, İstanbul 1995) tarafından Türkçe’ye çevrilmiştir. 5. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World (New York 1981). Said bu eserinde Amerikan medyasının ve akademi çevrelerinin İslâm konusundaki çarpıtmalarını ve yanlış algılarını irdelemektedir ve onların İslâm toplumları ile Ortadoğu’nun karmaşık dinî ve siyasî yapısını yanlış anladıklarını gösterme iddiasındadır (T trc. Alev Alatlı, Haberlerin Ağında İslam, İstanbul 1984, 2000). 6. Culture and Imperialism (Vintage 1994). Yazarın Orientalism adlı çalışmasının devamı niteliğindedir. Said eserin girişinde şöyle demektedir (s. 11): “Ortadoğu ile sınırlı tuttuğum Orientalism’de ortaya koyduğum tezler önemli sayıda antropoloji, tarih ve alan araştırması ile geliştirilmiştir; dolayısıyla ben burada, ilk kitaptaki tezleri genişleterek modern Batı metropolleriyle bu metropollerin deniz aşırı toprakları arasındaki ilişkilerin biçimlenişini daha genel bir planda betimlemeye çalıştım” (T trc. Necmiye Alpay, Kültür ve Emperyalizm, İstanbul 1995). 7. Representations of the Intellectual: the 1993 Reith Lectures (Vintage 1994). Said, BBC’nin 1993 Reith konferanslarında yaptığı konuşmalardan oluşan, entelektüelin toplumdaki rolünü sorguladığı bu eserini şöyle takdim etmektedir (Entelektüel: Sürgün, Marjinal, Yabancı, s. 12): “Aslında bu konferanslarda entelektüellerden tam da, kamusal alanda belli bir reçeteye, slogana, Ortodoks parti çizgisine ya da katı bir dogmaya uygun bir biçimde davranmaya zorlanamayan, davranışları hakkında öngörüde bulunulamayan kişiler olarak bahsedilmeye çalışılıyor. Entelektüel bireyin hangi partiye yakınlık duyarsa duysun, hangi ülkeden gelirse gelsin ve kendini aslen neye bağlı hissederse etsin, insanların çektiği acılar ve yaşadığı baskılar konusunda belli doğruluk standartlarından şaşmaması gerektiğini söylemeye çalıştım.” Kitapta sunulan sürgün, marjinal ve yabancı entelektüel portresinin Said’in yaşamında somutlaşmış olduğunu görmek ilgi çekicidir. Bu yönüyle esere kişisel bir çalışma ve Said’in bir tür kendine ilişkin yapmış olduğu kuramsal tanımlama denemesi olarak da bakmak mümkündür. Kitap Türkçe’ye Entelektüel: Sürgün, Marjinal, Yabancı adıyla çevrilmiştir (bk. bibl.). 8. Musical Elaborations (New York 1991). Aynı zamanda iyi bir piyanist olan ve The Nation dergisi için müzik eleştirileri kaleme alan Edward Said’in bu dergide çıkan yazılarının bir araya getirilmesinden oluşan eser Gül Çağalı tarafından Müzikal Nakışlar adıyla Türkçe’ye çevrilmiştir (İstanbul 2006). 9. Out of Place (New York 1999). Edward Said’in çocukluk ve ilk gençlik yıllarını anlattığı otobiyografisi olup Türkçe’ye Yersiz Yurtsuz adıyla tercüme edilmiştir (bk. bibl.).
1977-1991 yılları arasında Filistin Ulusal Konseyi üyeliği yapan Said, Kasım 1988’de Cezayir’deki Filistin Ulusal Konseyi’nin toplantısında Filistin Kurtuluş Örgütü lideri Yâsir Arafat’ın zihninde bağımsız bir Filistin devleti fikrinin oluşmasına katkıda bulunmuştur. Oslo görüşmeleri sürecindeki etkisi de Filistin meselesiyle ilgilenenlerce bilinmektedir. Said’in Filistin meselesindeki aktif tutumu kendisine yönelik saldırıları arttırmış ve entelektüel baskıya şiddet unsuru da eklenmiştir. Bu sebeple her konuşmasında güvenlik sorunları yaşanırdı. 1985’te Columbia Üniversitesi’ndeki odasının yağmalanması bunun bir göstergesidir. Said’in bu konudaki eserleri de şunlardır: 1. The Question of Palestine (New York 1979). Müellifin, bazı Amerikalı entelektüellerin Araplar’ı terörizmle ilişkili göstermeye meyilli yaklaşımlarını mercek altına alarak Filistin meselesinin Amerikan kamuoyunda nasıl yorumlandığını irdelediği eseridir (T trc. Alev Alatlı, Filistin Sorunu, İstanbul 1985). 2. After the Last Sky: Palestinian Lives (London 1986). Filistinli varlığını resmetme çabasının bir ürünü olan eserin fotoğrafları İsviçreli fotoğraf sanatçısı Jean Mohr tarafından çekilmiştir. 3. Blaming the Victims: Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question (London 1988). Filistin tarihine ilişkin makaleleri Christopher Hicthens’le birlikte derlemesinden oluşmuştur. 4. Politics of Dispossesion: Struggle for Palestine, 1969-1994 (Vintage 1995). 5. Peace and Discontents: Essays in the Palestine and Middle East Peace Process (Vintage 1996).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Edward W. Said, The World, the Text, and the Critic, Cambridge 1983; a.mlf., Entelektüel: Sürgün, Marjinal, Yabancı (trc. Tuncay Birkan), İstanbul 1995; a.mlf., Kültür ve Emperyalizm (trc. Necmiye Alpay), İstanbul 1998; a.mlf., “Dünyalar Arasında”, Kış Ruhu (haz. ve trc. Tuncay Birkan), İstanbul 2000, s. 13-27; a.mlf., Yersiz Yurtsuz (trc. Aylin Ülçer), İstanbul 2004; a.mlf., “Doğu, Doğu Değildir: Oryantalizm Çağının Yaklaşan Sonu” (trc. Necmiye Alpay), Varlık, sy. 1061, İstanbul 1996, s. 42-49; B. Ashcroft – P. Ahluwalia, Edward Said: The Paradox of Identity, London-New York 1999; Alim Arlı, “Dünyalar Arasında: Edward W. Said’in Mirası”, Dîvân: İlmî Araştırmalar, sy. 15, İstanbul 2003, s. 169-189; Yücel Bulut, “Edward W. Said’e ve Oryantalizm’e Dair”, İÜ Sosyoloji Dergisi , 3. dizi, sy. 8, İstanbul 2004, s. 113-159.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2008 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 35. cildinde, 546-548 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.