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SCHACHT, Joseph Skip to content (1902-1969)
İslâm hukuku araştırmalarıyla tanınan şarkiyatçı.
15 Mart 1902’de o zaman Almanya’nın Yukarı Silesia bölgesinde (halen Polonya’da) yer alan Raciborz’da sağır ve dilsizler okulunda öğretmenlik yapan Katolik bir babanın çocuğu olarak dünyaya geldi. 1911-1920 yılları arasında aynı şehirdeki Humanistisches Gymnasium’a devam ederken din dersi için ayrılan saatte ödevlerini erken bitirdiği için -yahudi olmamasına rağmen- İbrânîce derslerine katılmasına izin verildi, böylece Sâmî dillerle tanıştı. 1920’de Breslau (Wroclaw, Polonya) Üniversitesi’nde teoloji dalında lisans öğrenimine başladı ve Sâmî dillerdeki bilgisini ilerletti. 1922’de Yeni Ahid üzerine yazdığı bir makale ile üniversite ödülü aldı. Buradaki hocalarından Gotthelf Bergsträsser’in teşvikiyle İslâm araştırmalarına ve özellikle İslâm hukuku alanına yöneldi. Hassâf’ın Kitâbü’l-Ḥiyel’ini konu edinen tezini 1923’te tamamlayarak doktor unvanını aldı. Leipzig’de kısa bir süre çalıştıktan sonra 1925’te Freiburg im Breisgau Üniversitesi’ne davet edildi ve burada iki yıl öğretim görevlisi olarak vazife yaptı; 1927’de doçent, 1929’da Almanya’nın o zamana kadarki en genç profesörü oldu. Tatillerde bir yandan C. Snouck-Hurgronje’den yararlanmak için sık sık Leiden’e gitti; öte yandan Suriye, Mısır ve Türkiye gibi müslümanın ülkelere seyahat ederek buralardaki yazma eser kütüphanelerinde araştırmalar yaptı. 1930 baharında Mısır (Kahire) Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi’nde misafir hoca olarak ders verdi. 1932’de Königsberg Üniversitesi’nde göreve başladı. Naziler iş başına gelince kendisine karşı bir tehdit söz konusu olmadığı halde özgür bilim yapma imkânı kalmadığını düşünerek 1934’te Almanya’dan ayrıldı ve çok geçmeden Almanca yazmayı, hatta konuşmayı bile tamamen bıraktı. 1939’a kadar Mısır Üniversitesi’nde ders verdi. Bu esnada İslâm hukuku üzerine yapmakta olduğu çalışmasının malzemesini hazırlamaktaydı. 1939 Eylülünde II. Dünya Savaşı başladığında yaz tatili için İngiltere’de bulunuyordu ve kütüphanesi Mısır’da kalmıştı. Mısır’a dönme girişimleri sonuç vermeyince savaş sırasında beş yıl boyunca İngiliz Enformasyon Bakanlığı için Doğu uzmanı olarak çalıştı. BBC’de Farsça ve Arapça programlarına katkıda bulundu (burada yaptığı konuşmalar BBC tarafından “el-Müstemiʿu’l-Arabî” adıyla yayımlanmıştır).
Savaş sonrası Mısır’a davet edilmesine rağmen İngiltere’de kalmayı tercih eden Schacht kütüphanesini yanına aldırdı. 1944’te Kahire’deki İngiliz Konsolosluğu’nda daha önce tanıştığı Dorothy Coleman adlı bir İngiliz hanımla evlendi ve 1947’de İngiliz vatandaşı oldu. 1944’te Oxford’a taşındı ve 1946-1954 yılları arasında Oxford Üniversitesi’nde çalıştı. Bu arada birçok yurt dışı seyahatinde bulundu; 1947’de konferans vermek üzere Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’ne, 1950’de bir araştırma gezisi için Kuzey Nijerya’ya gitti. 1952’de misafir hoca olarak Cezayir Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi’nde ders verdi. 1953’te araştırma amacıyla Yakındoğu’yu ve Doğu Afrika’yı dolaştı. 1952’de Oxford Üniversitesi’nden tekrar doktora derecesi aldı, 1953’te Cezayir Üniversitesi tarafından fahrî doktora ile ödüllendirildi, 1954’te Şam Arap Akademisi’ne üye seçildi. Sir H. A. R. Gibb’in Arapça profesörü olduğu Oxford’da kürsü başkanı olamayacağını anlayınca Giorgio Levi Della Vida’nın teşvikiyle 1954’te Hollanda’ya gidip Leiden Üniversitesi’ndeki Arapça Kürsüsü’nde J. H. Kramers’in halefi olarak göreve başladı ve 1956’da Hollanda Kraliyet Akademisi üyesi oldu. Leiden’deki akademik çevre ile uyuşamadığı için 1957-1958’de Columbia Üniversitesi’nden aldığı teklifi kabul etti ve 1959’da bu üniversiteye profesör tayin edildi. Buradaki görevi ölümüne kadar devam etti. 1963 ve 1964’te Doğu Afrika’ya araştırma yapmak üzere tekrar gitti, 1967’de Guggenheim Fellow ödülünü alan Schacht, iki yıl sonra İslâm araştırmaları alanının Amerika’daki en prestijli ödülü olarak kabul edilen Giorgio Levi Della Vida ödülüne lâyık görüldü. Studia Islamica’nın Robert Brunschvig’le birlikte eş editörü ve The Encyclopaedia of Islam’ın ikinci edisyonunun dört editöründen biri oldu. 1 Ağustos 1969’da New Jersey’de Englewood’daki evinde beyin kanaması geçirerek öldü; eşi de kısa bir süre sonra öldü. Önce Hollanda’da Leiden Üniversitesi’ne verilen kitapları E. J. Brill Yayınevi’nin aracılığı ile Malezya Kebangsaan Üniversitesi tarafından satın alındı. Halen anılan üniversite kütüphanesinin bir bölümünde sergilenen kitapların katalogu internette mevcuttur (web adresi: http://pkukmweb.ukm.my/~library/scha1.htm).
Görüşleri. İslâmiyet’le ilgili birçok araştırma gerçekleştiren Schacht’ın özellikle İslâm hukukunun mahiyeti ve kökleriyle ilgili görüşleri akademik çevrelerde etkili olmuştur. Schacht’a göre İslâm hukuku bir hukuk sisteminden çok bir deontoloji olarak ortaya çıkmıştır; bu sebeple pratik değeri yoktur, tarih boyunca çok sınırlı bir uygulama alanı bulmuş, hatta birçok alanda hiç uygulanmamış, sadece bir ideal olarak kalmıştır. İslâm’da ictihad kapısının IV. (X.) yüzyıldan itibaren kapandığını, hukukun erken Abbâsî döneminde şekillendikten sonra değişmeden asırlarca devam ettiğini belirten Schacht bu durumun teori-pratik gerilimini ortaya çıkardığını; fıkıh kurallarının, her biri, kendi başına meşrû birden fazla işlemi birleştirerek meşrû olmayan bir sonuca ulaşabilmeye imkân veren hukukî yollara (hiyel) başvurma neticesinde oluştuğunu yani teoriyle pratik arasındaki gerilimin ürünü olduğunu iddia eder. Aslında onun İslâm hukukunun mahiyeti ve kurumsal karakteri üzerine yaptığı değerlendirmeler, Max Weber’in Ortaçağ hukuklarının ve özellikle büyük dinlerin geliştirdiği hukukların irrasyonel kutsal hukuk olduğu ve bunların pratik değerinin bulunmadığı, Avrupa üstünlüğünün Avrupa’nın kendine özgü bir akılcılık geliştirmesine bağlı olduğu, dolayısıyla hukukî, iktisadî, bürokratik vb. bütün Avrupalı rasyonel kurumların Avrupa medeniyetine mensup olmayan geleneksel hiçbir toplumda gelişemeyeceği şeklindeki görüşlerinden etkilenmiştir. Hocası Snouck-Hurgronje’nin deontoloji fikri de Schacht’ın İslâm hukukuna ilişkin değerlendirmelerinde ilham kaynağı olmuştur. XIX. yüzyılın sonu ve XX. yüzyılın başında Avrupa akademik ve entelektüel çevrelerinde hâkim olan Avrupa merkezci Weberyen tezlerin etkisi Schacht’ı bazan çelişkili değerlendirmelere itmiştir. Meselâ bir yandan teori-pratik geriliminin hukukun değişmeden devam etmesi olgusu karşısında ictihad asrından sonra ortaya çıkan bir durum olduğunu iddia ederken öte yandan hiyeli bu gerilimin ürünü diye nitelemesi, neşirlerini yaptığı hiyel kitaplarının üçünün de sözünü ettiği ictihad asrında ortaya çıktığı ve başından itibaren hiyelin sistemin bir parçası olduğu gerçeğiyle bağdaşmamaktadır. İslâm hukuku içinde yer alan rasyonel eğilimlerin varlığı da onu teorik Weberyen varsayımlarla zaman zaman zıt yorumlara sevketmiştir.
Sosyal kurumların teşekkülü, gelişimi ve etkileşimi konusunda Batı’da ortaya çıkan sosyal bilimci gözlemleri İslâm hukuk kurumlarının gelişimine uygulayan Schacht, VII ve VIII. yüzyıllarda İslâmî kurumların teşekkülünün arka planını Roma ve İran siyasal ve sosyal kurumları yanında Yahudilik, Hıristiyanlık gibi dinlerin etkisiyle açıklamaya çalışmış, böylece İslâm hukukunun İslâm öncesi Antik kültürlerin İslâmîleştirilmesi yoluyla doğduğunu iddia etmiştir. Batılı araştırmacılarca sosyal kurumların değerlendirilmesinde esas alınan söz konusu gözlemlerin birçoğunun aslında Edward Said’in “şarkiyatçılık” diye adlandırdığı Batı’nın problemli Doğu algısının bir ürünü olduğu bugün daha fazla dile getirilmektedir. Ancak Schacht’ın bazı gözlemlerinin objektif bir sosyal tarih bakış açısına dayalı olduğu ve bu yönüyle onun İbn Haldûn’dan etkilenmiş bulunduğu inkâr edilemez.
XIX ve XX. yüzyıllarda sosyal bilimlere ve kültürel incelemelere hâkim olan Avrupa merkezci anlayışların, varsayımların ve ön yargıların XX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren sorgulanması ve Avrupa akademik çevrelerinde Max Weber’in kuşatıcı tezlerine dönük tenkitlerin yaygınlaşmasıyla Schacht’ın İslâm hukukunun mahiyetine ilişkin fikirleri de eleştirilmeye başlanmıştır. İslâm hukukunda belirli bir zamandan sonra ictihad kapısının kapalı olduğu şeklindeki tezini sorgulayan yazılar, teori-pratik gerilimine ilişkin görüşlerinin dayanaksız olduğunu gösteren hukuk tarihi araştırmaları ve İslâm hukukunda değişimin olmadığı tezine karşı bu hukuk sisteminin tarih içindeki dinamik yönüne dikkat çeken çalışmalar Schacht’ın görüşlerinin ciddi anlamda gözden geçirilmesi gerektiğini ortaya koymuş, Said’in şarkiyatçılık olarak adlandırdığı zihniyetin Schacht’ın İslâm hukuku araştırmalarına da yansıdığı yönündeki tesbitler arttıkça onun bu alanda ileri sürdüğü fikirler hemen tamamıyla terkedilmiştir. Meselâ İslâm hukuku ve değişim, ictihad ve taklit, ihtilâf ve icmâ gibi konular bugün Batı’da Schacht’ın yazdıklarından çok farklı algılanmaktadır.
Schacht’ın hadis ve İslâm hukukunun kökleri konusundaki çalışmaları çok daha etkili olmuştur. Schacht, bu konuda Kitâb-ı Mukaddes eleştirilerini İslâm’ın kutsal metinlerine tatbik eden Ignaz Goldziher’in yöntemini izlemiştir. Goldziher’in özellikle hadislerle ilgili eleştirel yaklaşımını erken dönem İslâm hukuk teorisine uygulayan Schacht, müslüman geleneğinde savunulduğunun aksine ilk İslâm hukukçularınca ortaya konan malzemenin Hz. Peygamber’in mirasıyla doğrudan ilişkisinin bulunmadığını, bunların İslâm öncesi Arap örfü, fethedilen topraklardaki uygulamalarla Emevî Devleti’nin ve toplumunun pratiğinden ibaret bulunduğunu ve hadisler şeklinde Hz. Peygamber’in dilinden aktarılmasının sonradan oluşan bir kurgunun ürünü olduğunu iddia etmiştir. Ona göre ahkâm hadisleri peygamber ve ashabından gelmez; bunlar sonraki dönem İslâm toplumunun bilgi birikiminden başka bir şey değildir. Sünnet kavramı I. (VII.) yüzyılda “İslâm toplumunun örfü” anlamına gelirken daha sonra hadisler aracılığı ile Hz. Peygamber’in diline aktarılmıştır. Hadisle sünnetin aynı anlama geldiği düşüncesini ilk defa kapsamlı ve tutarlı bir teoriyle ortaya koyan İmam Şâfiî olmuş, böylece geleneklerin Hz. Peygamber’in diline çevrilmesi sürecinin teorik bir zemine kavuşmasına hizmet etmiştir. Schacht, Şâfiî öncesi fakihlerin ve fıkıh okullarının (bunlara kadim hukuk mektepleri adını verir) Hz. Peygamber’in öğretilerinin metinsel formları olan hadislere bu anlamda bir otorite vermediğini, aksine sünnet kavramını “yerel gelenekler, örfler” mânasında kullandığını, hadisçiliğin ve hadis derleme faaliyetinin bu kadim hukuk mekteplerine karşı bir tepki hareketi olduğunu, Şâfiî’nin bu tepki hareketini daha kavramsal ve kuramsal bir zemine oturtarak güçlendirdiğini, dolayısıyla Şâfiî’nin ilk dönem İslâm toplumuna “yeni” ve “yabancı” bir İslâm hukuk teorisi icat ettiğini ileri sürmüştür. O sıralarda Goldziher’in ve onun yolunu izleyenlerin hadislerle ilgili görüşleri şarkiyatçılar arasında fazla tutulmuyordu; Schacht’ın bu görüşleri içeren eseri büyük bir şaşkınlık veya hayranlığın, olumlu ya da olumsuz birçok tepkinin ortaya çıkmasına sebep olmuştur. Söylediklerinin İslâmî gelenek açısından sonuçlarının farkında olan ve bunları gözden geçirmeyi düşündüğünü özel sohbetlerinde dile getiren Schacht âni ölümü sebebiyle buna fırsat bulamamıştır. Schacht, Batı’da XX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında başka hiçbir şarkiyatçının yapamadığı kadar etki meydana getirmiş, özellikle İslâm hukukuyla ilgili değerlendirmeleri derinden sarsmıştır.
Schacht’ın hadis ve sünnetle ilgili görüşleri yayımlandığı andan itibaren eleştirileri de beraberinde getirmiştir. James Noel Coulson, bazı yönlerden ona hak verse de İslâmî geleneğin tamamen uydurma olduğu tezinin çok aşırı bir değerlendirme olduğunu vurgulamıştır. Fuat Sezgin, Nabia Abbott ve Mustafa A‘zamî gibi yazarlar, İslâmî tarih anlatısının doğruluğundan hiç kuşku duymaksızın Schacht’ın tezinin yanlış bilgiye, hatta anlayamama veya saptırmaya dayandığını ileri sürmüştür. Onun sünnet ve İslâm hukukunun kökleri hakkındaki görüşlerinin ve “bilimsel” yönteminin doğrudan ve kendi tarzında bir bilimsel eleştirisi ise ancak XX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında modernite ve modernizmin din ve dinî geleneklerle ilgili yaklaşımlarının sorgulanmaya başlanmasıyla mümkün olabilmiştir. Fazlurrahman, sünnet kavramının Hz. Peygamber’le ilişkisini ve Schacht’ın II. (VIII.) yüzyılın ikinci yarısına ait ilk fıkıh-hadis eserleri üzerinde metin analizi yaparak ulaştığı İslâm’ın ilk bir buçuk yüzyılı ile ilgili yorum ve çıkarımlarının aksi yönünde de düşünülebileceğini ortaya koymuştur. 1980’li yıllarda Vâil Hallâk, Schacht’ın Şâfiî’nin İslâm hukuk tarihinde yeni bir dönemin başlatıcısı olduğu iddiasını sorgulayan yazılar kaleme almıştır. İlk dönem İslâm tarihi üzerine yapılan spekülasyonların şarkiyatçı eğilimlerden beslendiğini gösteren çalışmalar peş peşe yayımlanmaya başlanmıştır. Hollandalı şarkiyatçı Harald Motzki, hadis metinleri ve isnadlar üzerine Schacht’ın ve takipçilerinin ortaya koyduğu bulguların yanlış olabileceğini gösteren çalışmalar yapmıştır. Kısaca pek çok Batılı araştırmacı, Schacht’ın İslâm hukukunun köklerine ilişkin düşüncelerinin verilerin yanlış yorumlanmasından kaynaklandığını göstermiştir. Ancak bu ciddi eleştirilere rağmen Batı’da, ilk dönem İslâm tarihi kaynaklarının ve dinî metinlerin sıhhati konusunda Goldziher-Schacht yaklaşımını mutlak doğru sayıp sorgulamaksızın kabul etme eğilimi taşıyan araştırmacılar da bulunmaktadır.
Eserleri. Schacht, başta İslâm hukuku olmak üzere İslâm araştırmalarının pek çok alanında çalışmalar yapmış ve eserler kaleme almıştır. Bir kısmı farklı dillerde aynı görüşlerin tekrarı veya değişik ifadesi şeklindeki 100 kadar eserinden bir seçme aşağıda verilmiştir. Bunun yanında onun The Encyclopaedia of Islam’ın gerek birinci gerekse ikinci neşrinde yer alan, bir kısmı son derece önemli 100’e yakın maddesi vardır. İslâm Hukuku Araştırmaları. Bunları üç başlıkta toplamak mümkündür. a) İslâm hukukunun kavramsal çerçevesi ve hukuk tarihindeki yeri. Bu konularda Schacht, hocası Bergsträsser’in eserlerinden etkilenerek İslâm hukukunun mahiyeti ve pratik yönüne ilişkin çalışmalar gerçekleştirmiştir. Bu amaçla hiyel, furûk, şürût ve ihtilâf gibi İslâm hukukunun pratik yönünü yansıtan Arapça yazma eserlerin tam veya kısmî neşirlerini yapmıştır. Hassâf’ın Kitâbü’l-Ḥiyel’i (Hannover 1923), Muhammed b. Hasan eş-Şeybânî’nin el-Meḫâric fi’l-ḥiyel’i (Leipzig 1930), Ebû Hâtim Mahmûd b. Hasan el-Kazvînî’nin Kitâbü’l-Ḥiyel’i ve İbn Cerîr et-Taberî’nin İḫtilâfü’l-fuḳahâʾ adlı eserinin (Leiden 1933) bir bölümünün tenkitli neşirleri bazı örneklerdir. Bu alandaki araştırmalarının sonuçlarını makale ve kitaplarında ortaya koymuş olup bazıları şunlardır: 1. “Die arabische hijal-Literatur. Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Islamischen Rechtpraxis” (Isl., XV [1926], s. 211-223, 335). 2. Bergsträsser’s Grundzüge des islamischen Recht (Berlin-Leipzig 1935). Hocasının ders notlarından hazırlanmış bir eser olup İbrâhim el-Halebî’nin el-Mülteḳa’l-ebḥur’unu esas alan bir İslâm hukuk doktrini özetidir. 3. “S̱elâs̱ muḥāḍarāt fī tārīḫi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslāmī” (el-Meşriḳ, XXXIII [1935], s. 207-238). 4. “Zur soziologischen Betrachtung des islamischen Rechts” (Isl., XXII [1935], s. 207-238). 5. “Law” (Unity and Diversity in Muslim Civilization, ed. G. E. Von Grunebaum, Chicago 1955, s. 65-86). 6. “Modernism and Traditionalism in a History of Islamic Law” (MES, I [1965], s. 388-400). 7. “Theology and Law in Islam” (Theology and Law in Islam, Second Giorgio Levi Della Vida Conference, ed. Gustave von Grunebaum, Wiesbaden 1971, s. 3-23). 8. “Islamic Religious Law” (The Legacy of Islam, ed. Joseph Schacht – C. E. Bosworth, London 1974, s. 392-403). 9. An Introduction to Islamic Law (Oxford 1964). Schacht, genel olarak İslâm hukuk doktrini ve tarihi üzerine yaptığı çalışmalarını hayatının sonlarına doğru kaleme aldığı bu çalışmasında daha derli toplu ve olgun biçimde yeniden yayımlamıştır. Burada, İslâm hukukunun erken dönem gelişimini tasvir ettikten sonra hocasının ders notlarını da ihtiva eden İslâm hukukunun klasik doktrinini özetlemiş ve eserin sonuna geniş bir bibliyografya eklemiştir. Introduction, bütün eleştirilere rağmen Batı’da hâlâ konusunda en sık başvurulan eser olma özelliğini korumaktadır (Fr. trc. Introduction au droit musulman, trc. Paul Kempf – Abdel Magid Turki, Paris 1983; T trc. İslâm Hukukuna Giriş, trc. Abdülkadir Şener – Mehmet Dağ, Ankara 1985). b) İslâm hukukunun kökeni ve kaynakları. Schacht’ın en etkili eserleri bu konudadır. 1. “A Reavaluation of Islamic Traditions” (JRAS, XLIX [1949], s. 143-154). 2. “Foreign Elements in Ancient Islamic Law” (Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law, XXXII [London 1950], s. 9-17). 3. Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford 1950). Bu çalışma Schacht’ın şaheseri olarak değerlendirilmektedir. 4. “Pre-Islamic Background and Early Development of Jurisprudence” (Law in the Middle East [vol. I: Origin and Development of Islamic Law], ed. M. Khadduri – A. Liebesny, Washington, D.C., 1955, s. 28-56). 5. “The Schools of Law and Later Developments of Jurisprudence” (a.g.e., s. 57-84). 6. “Sur l’expression ‘Sunna du Prophète’” (Mélanges d’orientalisme offerts à Henri Massé, Tahran 1963). c) Modern gelişmeler ve İslâm hukuku. 1. “Šari‘a und Qanun im modernen Ägypten: Ein Beitrag zur Frage des islamischen Modernismus” (Isl., XX [1932], s. 209-236). 2. “Islamic Law in Contemporary States” (American Journal of Comprative Law, VIII [Berkeley 1959], s. 133-147). 3. “Problems of Modern Islamic Legislation” (St.I, XII [1960], s. 99-129).
Diğer Çalışmaları. Bu gruba giren eserler arasında İstanbul, Kahire, Tunus, Fas yazma kütüphaneleriyle ilgili araştırmaları yanında kelâm, İslâm felsefesi, İslâm tıp tarihi, Antik Yunan mirasının tercümesi ve sanat tarihi gibi alanlardaki makale ve kitapları sayılabilir. Ölümü öncesinde Mâtürîdî’nin Kitâbü’t-Tevḥîd’inin kendisinde bulunan bir yazmasına dayalı tenkitli neşrini hazırlamaktaydı; ancak bu çalışmanın âkıbeti hakkında bilgi yoktur. Hukukla ilgili olmayan çalışmalarından bazıları şunlardır: 1. The Medico-Philosophical Controversy Between Ibn Butlān of Baghdād and Ibn Ridwān of Cairo (Max Meyerhof’la birlikte, Cairo 1937). 2. “New Sources for the History of Muhammadan Theology” (St.I, I [1953], s. 23-42). 3. “An Early Murci’ite Treatise: The Kitāb al-ʿālim wal-mutaʿallim” (Oriens, XVII [1964], s. 96-117). 4. “Staircase Minaret” (First International Congress of Turkish Arts, Ankara 1961, s. 297). 5. “Further Notes on Staircase Minaret” (Ars Orientalis, IV [Michigan 1961], s. 137-141). 6. The Theologus Autodidactus of Ibn al-Nafis (Max Meyerhof’la birlikte, Oxford 1968).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Fuat Sezgin, Buhârî’nin Kaynakları Hakkında Araştırmalar, İstanbul 1956, s. 49; a.mlf., GAS, I, 73, 930 (İndeks); Fazlur Rahman, Islamic Methodology in History, Islamabad 1965, s. 5, 181; N. Abbott, Studies in Arabic Literary Papyri, Chicago 1957-67, I, 18; II, 36, 83, 95-96; a.mlf., “Hadith Literature-II: Collection and Transmission of Hadith”, Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period, Cambridge 1983, s. 289-298; Selâhaddin el-Müneccid, “Âs̱ârü’l-üstâẕ Schacht”, el-Münteḳā min dirâsâti’l-müsteşriḳīn: Dirâsât muḫtelife fi’s̱-s̱eḳāfeti’l-ʿArabiyye (haz. Selâhaddin el-Müneccid), Beyrut 1976, I, 120-123; Bedevî, Mevsûʿatü’l-müsteşriḳīn , s. 252-255; M. Mustafa A‘zami, On Schacht’s Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, Riyad 1985 (Türkçesi: İslâm Fıkhı ve Sünnet: Oryantalist J. Schacht’a Eleştiri [trc. Mustafa Ertürk], İstanbul 1996); R. Stephen Humphreys, Islamic History: A Framework for Inquiry, Princeton 1991, s. 213-215 (Türkçesi: İslâm Tarih Metodolojisi-Bir Sosyal Tarih Uygulaması [trc. Murtaza Bedir – Fuat Aydın], İstanbul 2004); M. Hoebink, Two Halves of the Same Truth: Schacht, Hallaq, and the Gate of Ijtihad. An Inquiry into Definitions, Amsterdam 1994; B. Johansen, Contingency in a Sacred Law: Legal and Ethical Norms in the Muslim Fiqh, Leiden 1998, s. 1-72; H. Berg, The Development of Exegesis in Early Islam: The Authenticity of Muslim Literature from Early Periods, Surrey 2000, tür.yer.; H. Motzki, The Origins of Islamic Jurisprudence (trc. M. H. Katz), Leiden 2002, s. 10-49; J. Wakin, Remembering Joseph Schacht (1902-1969), Cambridge 2003; G. Hourani, “Joseph Schacht (1902-1969)”, JAOS, XC (1970), s. 163-167; R. Brunschvig, “Joseph Schacht (1902-1969)”, St.I, XXXI (1970), s. V-IX; B. Lewis, “Joseph Schacht”, BSOAS, XXXIII (1970), s. 378-381; E. Hill, “Orientalism and Liberal Legalism”, Review of Middle East Studies, II, London 1976, s. 57-70; A. Layish, “Notes on Joseph Schacht’s Contribution to the Study of Islamic Law”, BSMES, IX/2 (1982), s. 132-140; Wael B. Hallaq, “Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?”, IJMES, XVI/1 (1984), s. 3-41; a.mlf., “On the Origins of the Controversy About the Existence of Mujtahids and the Gate of Ijtihad”, St.I, LXIII (1986), s. 129-141; a.mlf., “Was al-Shafi‘i the Master Architect of Islamic Jurisprudence?”, IJMES, XXV/4 (1993), s. 587-605; a.mlf., “Model Shurut Works and the Dialectic of Doctrine and Practice”, Islamic Law and Society, II/2, Leiden 1995, s. 109-134; a.mlf., “The Quest for Origins or Doctrine? Islamic Legal Studies as Colonialist Discourse”, UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law, II/1, Los Angeles 2002-03, s. 1-31.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2009 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 36. cildinde, 223-226 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.