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SİLÂH Skip to content
1/2 Müellif: NEBİ BOZKURT Bölüme Git
Silâh (çoğulu esliha) kelimesi genel olarak bütün savaş aletlerini ifade etmekle birlikte ilk dönemlerde en fazla tanınan türler olduğundan daha çok k…
2/2 Müellif: DİA Bölüme Git
Madde güncellenmektedir.
Silâh (çoğulu esliha) kelimesi genel olarak bütün savaş aletlerini ifade etmekle birlikte ilk dönemlerde en fazla tanınan türler olduğundan daha çok kılıç, ok ve mızrak için kullanılmıştır. İnsanın icat ettiği ilk alet olan silâhın bilinen en eski örneği Yontma Taş döneminin başlarına kadar giden el baltasıdır. Bu silâh, avuç içine oturması ve vurulduğu yeri daha fazla tahrip etmesi için kabaca biçimlendirilerek alt tarafı hafifçe sivriltilen armudî bir çakmak taşı veya volkan camı parçasından ibarettir; daha sonra yassı şekilde yontulup sırımla bir sopaya bağlanmak suretiyle kullanılmıştır. Mağara resimlerinden balta ve bıçak benzeri ilk taş aletlerin yanı sıra ilk mızrak ve ok-yayın da yine aynı dönemde -taş uçlu olarak- icat edildiği anlaşılmaktadır. Anadolu, Mezopotamya, Mısır, Hint ve Çin gibi en eski uygarlıklardan kalan örneklerle resimli ve yazılı belgelerden silâhların gelişimine ilişkin düzenli bilgiler elde edilmiştir. Kitâb-ı Mukaddes’te demir silâhla öldürmekten söz edilmekte (Sayılar, 35/16), genel olarak silâh, özel olarak kılıç ve ok-yay çokça geçmektedir (Concordance, “arrow”, “axe”, “bow”, “sword”, “weapon” md.leri).
Silâh çoğul şekliyle Kur’an’da, cephede düşman karşısında müslümanların nasıl namaz kılacaklarını açıklayan âyette (en-Nisâ 4/102) dört defa geçmektedir. Hadîd sûresine adını veren demirdeki büyük güç ve faydalar (57/25) silâhla yorumlanmıştır (Buhârî, “Tefsîr”, 57). Yine Kur’an’da Hz. Dâvûd’a savaşta korunması için zırh yapma sanatının öğretildiği (el-Enbiyâ 21/80), demirin onun için yumuşatıldığı ve ondan dikkat ve itinayla muntazam zırhlar yapmasının istendiği ifade edilir (Sebe’ 34/10-11). Ayrıca düşmanlara karşı onları korkutup barışı korumak için hazırlanması emredilen kuvveti de (el-Enfâl 8/60) Hz. Peygamber -silâh- atmakla (remy) yorumlamış (Müslim, “İmâre”, 167), ancak atılacak şeyi zikretmeyerek zamana bırakmıştır. Resûl-i Ekrem’in farklı rivayetlerde, “Müslümana silâh (Buhârî, “Fiten”, 7, “Diyet”, 2; Müslim, “Îmân”, 98-101) veya kılıç (Müsned, IV, 46, 54; Müslim, “Îmân”, 98) çeken yahut ok atan (İbn Balabân, VII, 449) bizden değildir” dediği bilinmektedir. Bir rivayette de müslümana demir doğrultan kimseye Allah’ın lânet edeceği belirtilmiştir (Müslim, “Birr”, 125). Yine bir hadiste bir kimsenin elinde -gerilmiş yaydaki ok gibi- bir silâhla bir başkasına doğru gelmemesi, şeytanın onu bir anda elinden çıkarıp o şahsın ölümüne, kendisinin de cehenneme gitmesine yol açabileceği belirtilir (Buhârî, “Fiten”, 7; Müslim, “Birr”, 126). Halk arasında boş olduğu düşünülerek şakayla doğrultulmuş tüfek, tabanca için kullanılan, “Şeytan doldurur” ifadesi buradan gelmiş olmalıdır. Hz. Peygamber ordusunun donanımı için gereken silâhların teminine özel bir önem vermiştir. Silâhların bir kısmı gazvelerde ele geçirilen ganimetti. Meselâ Benî Kurayza Gazvesi’nde kalelere girildiğinde 1500 kılıç, 300 zırh, 2000 mızrak, 1500 kalkan bulunmuştu (İbn Sa‘d, II, 75). Resûl-i Ekrem’in bu gazveden elde ettiği feyin bir bölümünü at ve silâh alımı için ayırdığı ve Benî Abdüleşhel’den Sa‘d b. Zeyd el-Ensârî’yi Necid bölgesine at ve silâh satın alması için gönderdiği bilinmektedir.
Barutun icadından önce genel olarak vurucu, delici, kesici ve atıcı gibi sınıflara ayrılan silâhların kullanımı belli kurallara bağlıdır. Ok atış menzili içinde etki sağlayacak bir mesafeden, mızrak biraz daha yaklaşınca, kılıç göğüs göğüse çarpışmalarda ve gürz daha çok at üstünden kullanılır. Silâhları savunma, saldırı ve yakın dövüş, uzak dövüş silâhları veya ağır, hafif silâhlar şeklinde tasnif etmek mümkündür. Silâhlarla ilgili müstakil eserler İslâm tarihinde III. (IX.) yüzyıldan itibaren görülür. Bunlardan VI. (XII.) yüzyıl müelliflerinden Marzî b. Ali et-Tarsûsî’nin silâhlar ve harp sanatı hakkında yazdığı sistematik ansiklopedi kılıçla başlamakta ve silâhları önem sırasına göre ele almaktadır (bk. bibl.). Tarsûsî, Kur’an’da kılıca telmihte bulunulmasını (Muhammed 47/4) delil getirerek onu diğerlerinden üstün sayar. Kılıç genellikle askerliğin ve kahramanlığın simgesi kabul edilir; Memlükler’de silâhdarın arması kılıçtı. Hz. Peygamber Arapça’da 100’den fazla adla tanınan kılıcı cihadla özdeşleştirmiş ve cennetin onun gölgesinde olduğunu söylemiştir (bk. KILIÇ).
Uhud Gazvesi’nde Ayneyn tepesine yerleştirdiği okçulardan ve okçulukla ilgili hadislerden Resûl-i Ekrem’in ordusunda bir okçu sınıfının olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Tarsûsî ok ve yayın türleri, isimleri, ölçüleri, yapılış ve atış teknikleri hakkında geniş bilgi vermektedir (Mevsûʿatü’l-esliḥa, s. 66 vd.). Bu bilgiler arasında yayların tutuşturulmuş yağlı paçavra ve içine neft gibi yanıcı maddeler konulmuş şişe ve yumurta kabuğu atarak yangın çıkarılması da bulunmaktadır. Tarsûsî, kundak üzerine yerleştirilmiş manivelalı yay olan ve Batı’da “arbalet” denilen Tatar yayından ayrıntılı biçimde bahsetmektedir. Okçuluk üzerine çok sayıda eser yazılmıştır (bk. OK).
En eski dönemlerden beri kullanılan mızrak da Hz. Peygamber zamanının başlıca silâhlarından biriydi; özellikle bedevîler mızrak kullanımındaki maharetleriyle öne çıkmıştı. Diğer silâhlar gibi mızrakların da büyük bölümü dışarıdan getirilirdi. Resûl-i Ekrem’in mızrak ticareti yapan amcasının oğlu Nevfel b. Hâris, Bedir Gazvesi’nde esir alındığında Resûlullah kendisinden kurtuluş fidyesi olarak Cidde’deki mızraklarını vermesini istemiş ve Nevfel onun kimseye söylemediği bu sırrı bilmesine şaşarak müslüman olmuştu. Nevfel fidyesi için 1000 mızrak vermiş, daha sonra Huneyn Gazvesi’ne 3000 mızrakla yardımda bulunmuştur (İbn Sa‘d, IV, 46-47). Benî Kaynukā‘ ganimetinden Hz. Peygamber’in payına üç mızrak düştüğü rivayet edilir (a.g.e., I, 489). Mızraklar uzunluk, kalınlık ve diğer özelliklerine göre farklı adlar alırdı (bk. MIZRAK).
Yakın dövüş silâhlarından biri de daha çok süvariler tarafından, özellikle zırhlı hasımlarına karşı kullanılan ve bir sapın veya sapa bağlı yahut bağımsız bir zincirin ucuna tesbit edilmiş dikenli bir topuz şeklinde olan gürzdü (bk. GÜRZ). Araplar’ın genel olarak “fe’s”, Türkler’in “teber” dedikleri baltalar tek ağızlı, çift ağızlı veya bir tarafı batıcı-delici, diğer tarafı kesici olurdu. Eski dönemlerde görülen savaş-merasim baltalarının aksine sonraki asırlarda yapılanlarda süs unsurundan çok savaştaki yararı ön plana çıkarılmışsa da Memlükler’de olduğu gibi kakma veya ajur teknikleriyle süslenmiş tek ve çift ağızlı baltalar da yapılmıştır.
Savunma silâhlarının başında kalkan ve zırh gelmekteydi. “Türs, cevb, dereka, micen” gibi isimler alan kalkanların şeklinde ve yapım tekniğinde milletlere ve zamana göre farklılıklar görülmektedir (bk. KALKAN). Zırhlar demir veya çelik tel örgü, çelik halkalarla bağlı metal plaka, sadece metal plaka, sertleştirilmiş deri veya deri üzerine aplike metal kaplama gibi değişik biçimlerde yapılmaktaydı; demir halkalardan örülen elbise tarzındakiler daha yaygındı. Genellikle süvariler tarafından kullanılan zırhların çoğu Bizans ve İran yapımıydı. Zırhlar yapıldığı malzemeye, yere ve yapan ustaya göre değişik adlar alırdı; Hz. Peygamber’in zırhları “sa‘diyye” ve “fidda” olarak anılmaktaydı (bk. ZIRH). “Beyza” veya “hûze” denilen ve genellikle zırhın bir parçası sayılan miğfer demir gibi metallerden veya kalın köseleden yapılır, bir kısmının tepesi gerektiğinde kullanılmak üzere mızrak ucu gibi sivri olurdu (bk. MİĞFER).
Şehir kuşatmalarında faydalanılan ağır silâhların başında bazan sayısı 500’e ulaşan mürettebatın kullandığı mancınık geliyordu. Surları yıkmak ve içeriye yıkıcı, yakıcı malzeme veya yılan, akrep gibi panik çıkarıcı hayvan dolu çömlek atmakta işe yarayan mancınığa müslümanlar ilk defa Hayber’in fethiyle sahip olmuş ve Tâif’in kuşatmasında kullanmıştır (bk. MANCINIK). Kuşatma silâhlarından biri de ilkel bir tür tank sayılan debbâbelerdir. Kalın ve sıkı ahşaptan tekerlekli olarak yapılan debbâbenin üzeri, taşıdığı askerlerin surlardan atılan ateşten ve taşlardan korunması için kalaslarla örtülüp yanmaya karşı özel terbiye edilmiş köseleyle kaplanırdı. Dört kata kadar yükseklikleri olan debbâbelerden kale duvarına yanaştırılıp üzerine çıkmak veya atılan ok ve diğer maddelerden korunarak önlerindeki koçbaşlarıyla surları delmek ve kapıları kırmak için yararlanılırdı. Rivayete göre müslümanlar Tâif Muhasarası’nda sığır derisi kaplı debbâbeler kullanmış, ancak bunların kaleden atılan kızgın demir parçalarıyla yanması sonucu içinde bulunan savaşçılar şehid olmuştur (Belâzürî, s. 79). Kale savunmalarında yer alan önemli bir silâh, aslında Doğu kökenli olmasına rağmen Bizanslılar’ın başarıyla kullanmalarından dolayı onların adıyla anılan Rum ateşi idi (bk. ÂTEŞ-i RÛMÎ). “Nüfût” (neftler) başlığı altında değişik yanıcı maddeleri ele alan Tarsûsî (Mevsûʿatü’l-esliḥa, s. 176 vd.) son silâh olarak da yakıcı aynaları anlatır ve uzak bir mesafeden güneş ışığının aynalarla belli bir noktaya odaklanıp oradaki nesneleri yakan bir düzeneğin Aristo tarafından icat edilerek İskender’e öğretildiğini ve onun bu aleti savaşlarında kullandığını söyler (a.g.e., s. 187 vd.). Ancak Batılılar’a göre bu icadın sahibi Archimedes’dir ve onu milâttan önce 212 yılında Syracuse’ye saldıran Romalılar’a karşı kullanmıştır.
Kalkaşendî’nin verdiği silâhlara dair bilgiler arasında 10 rıtldan 100 rıtla kadar ağırlıkta (yaklaşık 4-40 kg.) demir gülleler atabilen büyük toplar da (midfe’, mükhale) bulunmaktadır. Barut onun ölümünden yaklaşık bir buçuk asır kadar önce Merakeş Merînî Hükümdarı Ebû Yûsuf Ya‘kūb tarafından Abdülvâdîler’e karşı Sicilmâse kuşatması sırasında kullanılmıştı (Zeydan, I, 260, 261; İA, X, 588). Barutu ilk kullanan müslüman devletler arasında Anadolu Selçukluları’nı ve ardından Karamanoğulları’nı da zikretmek gerekir. İslâm dünyasında ateşli silâhların kullanımı ve gelişmesinde Memlükler’in özel bir yeri varsa da malzeme ve eleman eksiklikleri bu konuda Osmanlılar’ın onları geçmesine yol açmıştır. Barutun Batı’da tanınması genel kanıya göre Endülüs müslümanları aracılığıyla olmuş ve kısa sürede yayılmıştır (Grenard, s. 37).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Lisânü’l-ʿArab, “hlk” md.; Müsned, IV, 46, 54; Buhârî, “Cihâd”, 22, 106; Müslim, “Cihâd”, 20; Ebû Dâvûd, “Cihâd”, 24; Tirmizî, “Feżâʾilü’l-cihâd”, 11; İbn Sa‘d, eṭ-Ṭabaḳāt, I, 485-487, 489; II, 75; IV, 46-47; Belâzürî, Fütûh (Fayda), s. 79; Taberî, Câmiʿu’l-beyân, VI, 274; IX, 53; XI, 688; Ebû Mansûr es-Seâlibî, Fıḳhü’l-luġa, Beyrut 1885, s. 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 337, 338, 339; Marzî b. Ali b. Marzî et-Tarsûsî, Mevsûʿatü’l-esliḥati’l-ḳadîme (nşr. Karen Sader), Beyrut 1998, s. 37 vd., 66 vd., 121, 126, 134 vd., 151 vd., 154, 163 vd., 170, 176 vd., 187 vd.; İbn Balabân, el-İḥsân bi-tertîbi Ṣaḥîḥi İbn Ḥibbân (nşr. Kemâl Yûsuf el-Hût), Beyrut 1407/1987, VII, 449; Ali b. Muhammed el-Huzâî, Taḫrîcü’d-delâlâti’s-semʿiyye (nşr. Ahmed M. Ebû Selâme), Kahire 1401/1980, s. 408, 409, 410, 709, 710, 711; İbn Haldûn, el-ʿİber, II, 465; Kalkaşendî, Ṣubḥu’l-aʿşâ (Şemseddin), I, 488; II, 148 vd.; Elmalılı, Hak Dini, VI, 3950; Uzunçarşılı, Medhal, s. 336-337; Abdurrahman Zekî, es-Silâḥ fi’l-İslâm, Kahire 1951, s. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 30, 33 vd., 39, 57, 58, 59, 60; D. Ayalon, Gunpowder and Firearms in the Mamluk Kingdom, London 1956, s. 9 vd., 24 vd.; A. Parrot, Nineveh and Babylon (trc. S. Gilbert – J. Emmons), London 1961, s. 46, 54-57, 107, 114, 115, lv. 57, 62-65, 116, 126-129, 164, 165, 166, 208; F. Grenard, Asyanın Yükselişi ve Düşüşü (trc. Orhan Yüksel), İstanbul 1970, s. 37; C. Zeydân, İslâm Medeniyeti Tarihi (trc. Zekî Mugāmiz), İstanbul 1974, I, 248-261; Concordance to the Good News Bible (ed. D. Robinson), Suffolk 1983, s. 53-54, 67, 108, 1151-1152, 1278; Abdülazîz b. İbrâhim el-Ömerî, el-Ḫiref ve’ṣ-ṣınâʿât fi’l-Ḥicâz fî ʿaṣri’r-Resûl, [baskı yeri yok] 1405/1985, s. 243 vd.; Muhsin M. Hüseyin, el-Ceyşü’l-Eyyûbî fî ʿahdi Ṣalâḥiddîn, Beyrut 1406/1986, s. 261 vd.; Abdülhay el-Kettânî, et-Terâtîbü’l-idâriyye (Özel), II, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 152; The Arts of Persia (ed. R. W. Ferrier), Ahmedabad 1990, s. 76, 77, lv. 27; H. Kennedy, The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State, London 2001, s. 168 vd.; Anthony C. Tirri, Islamic Weapons: Maghrib to Moghul, Fort Lauderdale (Florida) 2003; Şihâb es-Sarrâf – D. G. Alexander, el-Furûsiyye, Riyad, ts. (Mektebetü’l-Melik Abdülazîz el-âmme), I, 21, 22, 23, 113 vd., 118, 119, 120, 121, 126, 127, 169; II, 49, 92- 96, lv. 78, 79, 116, 117; W. Irvine, The Army of the Indian Moghuls, New Delhi, ts., s. 62 vd.; H. Stöcklein, “Arm and Armour”, Natural Sciences in Islam, LXXVIII, Frankfurt 2002, s. 1 vd.; S. L. A. Mayer, “Arms and Armor”, a.e., s. 33 vd.; George S. Colin, “Sicilmâse”, İA, X, 588; D. Nicolle, “Silāḥ”, EI2 Suppl. (İng.), s. 734-746; Mahmut H. Şakiroğlu, “Barut”, DİA, V, 92, 93; Nebi Bozkurt, “Renk”, a.e., XXXIV, 575.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2009 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 37. cildinde, 186-188 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.
Yazım güncellenmektedir.