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SİMYA Skip to content Bazı değersiz metallerden altın elde etmeyi amaçlayan uğraşı; eski kimya; geleneksel gizli ilimlerde bir sihir tekniği.
Etimolojisi kesin biçimde yapılamayan kelimenin genelde “sıvı akıtmak, metal dökmek” anlamındaki Grekçe khymeia nın Arapça’ya el-kîmiyâ’ ve es-sîmyâ’ yazılışlarıyla geçmiş şekli olduğu kabul edilmektedir. İslâm ilim ve düşüncesine ait eserlerin Latince’ye çevrilmesiyle birlikte el-kîmiyâ’ alchemy şeklini almış ve Batı dillerindeki chemistry (kimya) kelimesinin kökenini oluşturmuştur (Anawati, III, 854).
Simya insanlığa iki konu için etkili çözüm sözü vermiştir: Sonsuz bir zenginlik ve ölümsüz bir hayat. Bunların ilkine demir, bakır, kurşun gibi değersiz metallerden altın ve gümüş elde edilmesi yoluyla, ikincisine de “iksîr” denilen sihirli madde sayesinde ulaşılabileceğini ileri sürer. Kendi gizemli yöneliminde metal dönüşümünü ve iksir yapımını hedeflediği için aynı zamanda kimya işlemlerini ve metalürji süreçlerini kapsayan bir laboratuvar etkinliğidir. Ancak gerçek bir simyacının asıl amacı genel kabule göre bunlar değil dünyanın ve evrenin işleyişini anlamak ve buna müdahale etmektir.
Simya Hıristiyanlığın ilk yıllarında eski Mısırlılar’ın metalürji, boya ve cam yapımı gibi alanlardaki endüstriyel yetenekleriyle Asurlular, Bâbilliler ve Grekler’in felsefî düşünce yapılarının birleştiği Helenistik kültürün merkezi İskenderiye’de yapılan çalışmalarla başlar. O dönemin kültür dili Grekçe olduğu için kaleme alınan ilk eserler bu dildedir ve çoğu Mısırlı Zosimos’a (350-420) aittir. Metallerle insan bedeni, kimyasal işlemlerle insan erginlenme törenleri, insanın mânevî yönlerinin yetkinleştirilmesiyle metal altın arasındaki metaforik ilişkilerin ilk örneklerine rastlanan erken dönem simya kaynaklarında yahudi Mary, Agathodaimon ve Kleopatra gibi efsanevî yazarların isimleri geçmekte ve bu alanın kurucusunun Hermes Trismegistos olduğu söylenmektedir (Taylor, The Alchemists , s. 60-62; ayrıca bk. HERMES ).
Köklerini İskenderiye simyasından alan ve bir yandan sûfîliğe ve İranlı Şeyhîler gibi bâtınî okullara, bir yandan da zanaatlar ve loncalara bağlı sembolik bir madde bilimi olarak İslâm simyasının ilk temsilcisi Hâlid b. Yezîd, ondan sonra gelen iki önemli ismi ise Ca‘fer es-Sâdık ile öğrencisi, İslâm simyasını doruk noktasına çıkaran Câbir b. Hayyân el-Kûfî’dir. Câbir’in simya anlayışının temelinde dört unsur (toprak, su, hava, ateş), dört nitelik (sıcak, soğuk, kuru, nemli), denge kuramı ve civa-kükürt kuramı vardır. Doğadaki her şey dört elementin dört nitelikle belirli şekillerde birleşmesinden meydana gelir. Denge kuramına göre görünen ve görünmeyen evrende tam bir düzen ve oran hâkimdir; simya bu oranı anlamak ve oluşturmaktır (Nasr, İslâm’da Bilim ve Medeniyet , s. 263). Bu sebeple Câbir simyasında sayısal sembolizm ve oranlı sayılar çok önemlidir. Civa-kükürt kuramı da minerallerin oluşumunu açıklamakta kullanılır. Diğer simyacılar gibi Câbir’in bir ilgi alanı da insana ölümsüz hayat sağlayabilen ve bütün değersiz metallerden altın elde edilmesinde kullanılabilen iksiri elde etme teknikleridir. Câbir’in yanı sıra simya çalışmalarıyla tanınan bir diğer isim Ebû Bekir Muhammed b. Zekeriyyâ er-Râzî’dir. Câbir ve Râzî simyacılar tarafından simyanın büyük ustaları sayılmış ve her ikisinin aynı akıma bağlı olduğuna inanılmıştır. Fakat gerçekte Râzî, eserlerinde Ca‘fer’in dilini kullanmakla birlikte simyadan çok kimyanın konusuna girmesi gereken çalışmalara yer vermiştir. O, insan nefsinin tekâmülü için simya dilinin kullanılmasına da madde dönüşümüyle nefis dönüşümünün simya konuları olarak değerlendirilmesine de karşı çıkar. Öte yandan maddelerin oluşumunda tohumdan meydana gelme fikriyle Câbirci “gerçek sebep” bulma çabasını reddeder, ayrıca onda Câbirci sayısal sembolizm de yoktur.
İslâm dünyasında simya çalışmaları her zaman olumlayıcı bir yaklaşım çerçevesinde yürütülmemiştir. Simyayı madde dönüştürme sanatı ve iksir hazırlama yöntemi olarak kabul etmeyen çalışmalar da yapılmıştır ki bunların en önemli temsilcisi İbn Sînâ’dır. İbn Sînâ’nın tıp ve felsefe alanlarındaki araştırmalarının bütün dünyada yüzyıllar boyu etkisini sürdürmesine rağmen doğa bilimlerine ilişkin çalışmaları ve fikirleri fazla kabul görmemiştir. Fakat yine de onun çeşitli jeolojik süreçleri, o dönemde bilinen metalleri oluşturan altın, gümüş, bakır, kalay, kurşun ve demirin meydana geliş süreç ve biçimlerini açıklayan eş-Şifâʾ adlı eserinin eṭ-Ṭabîʿiyyât kısmındaki bilgiler, Ortaçağ Avrupası’nda simya karşıtı söylem ve çalışmaların temel dayanağını teşkil etmiştir (bk. eş-ŞİFÂ ). İslâm dünyasında ise dönemindeki yaygın anlayışın dışına çıkılarak madde dönüşümünün olabilirliğinin reddedilmesi ve simyanın maddeyle ilgilenmesi gereken bir alan şeklinde tanımlanması kabul görmemiş, buna rağmen bu sahte ilme olan rağbet yüzyıllar boyu sürmüştür (bk. KİMYA ).
Batı’daki ilk simya çalışmalarının XII. yüzyılın ortalarında Arapça’dan Latince’ye yapılan çevirilerle başladığı kabul edilmektedir. Batı simyasının sonraki kuşak temsilcileri XIII. yüzyıl düşünürlerinden Beauvais Vincent, Albertus Magnus ve Roger Bacon’dır. Vincent 1244 ve 1250 yılları arasında yazdığı Speculum naturale ve Speculum doctrinale adlı eserlerinde simyayı, “madde dönüşümünü mümkün kılan ve teorik içerikten çok geniş uygulama alanına sahip bir sanat” olarak tanımlamaktadır. Câbirci simya geleneğini izleyen Vincent, civa-kükürt kuramını mineral teşekkülünün ve madde dönüşümünün temel ilkesi sayar. Onun ardından gelen, De mineralibus adlı eserin yazarı Magnus’a göre ise metaller kararlı maddelerdir ve normal koşullarda bir metal başka bir metale dönüşmez. Bu sebeple her metal en mükemmel olduğu kendi yapısında kalmalıdır; ancak gerektiğinde değişiklik yapmak mümkündür. Bu durumda gerçek bir simyacı hastasını tedavi eden doktor gibi önce metali temizlemeli ve saflaştırmalı, ardından içindeki elementleri güçlendirmelidir; böylece metal yeni ve daha iyi bir form alabilir. Sonuç olarak simyacılar herhangi bir türün şeklini değiştiremez, sadece bir özel form geliştirirler ve başka bir oluşan için yol hazırlarlar. Batı simyasının önemli temsilcilerinden biri de bu sahte bilime Vincent ve Albertus’tan daha çok inanan Bacon’dır. Bacon, Opus tertium adlı eserinde simyanın bütün bilimlerden üstün olduğu görüşünü ısrarla savunur. Bu yüzyılda Batı’daki simya çalışmaları Tarantolu Paul’ün Teorica et practica adlı eseriyle sürdürülür. Kitabında simyanın kuram ve uygulama temellerini açıklayan Tarantolu Paul zeki, eğitimli ve donanımlı bir simyacının maddelerin niteliklerini değiştirebileceğini kabul etmektedir (Newman, LXXX/3 [1989], s. 423-434).
XIII. yüzyılın sonlarından itibaren Batı’da da simya karşıtı görüşlere rastlanır. Bunların ilki, 1286-1291 yılları arasında Thomas Acquinas’ın öğrencisi Romalı Giles (Aegidius Romanus) tarafından yapılan çalışmalarda ortaya çıkar. Giles’in takipcisi olduğu Thomas’a göre bir simyacı gerçek altın değil ancak ona benzer bir şey üretebilir. Giles’e göre de metaller yeryüzünün derinliklerinde oluşur ve insan eliyle aynı oluşumun tekrarlanabilmesi imkânsızdır. Giles bu noktada İbn Sînâ’nın, “Yapay ürünler asla doğallarıyla aynı olamaz” görüşünü paylaşmaktadır. XIII. yüzyılın son otuz yılında dinî otoritelerin simyaya karşı düşmanca tavır aldıkları ve 1372’de Papa XXII. John’un onu yasakladığı görülür. Yasaklama sebebi, bir şeyin tanrı dışında yaratıldığına ve bir türün diğer bir türe değiştirildiğine inanmanın dinsizlik sayılmasıdır (a.g.e. , LXXX/3 [1989], s. 439-440). XIV. yüzyılda bu otoritelerin karşı tutumları devam etmekle birlikte simya çalışmaları engellenememiş ve XVI. yüzyıl bilim reformunun sembol isimlerinden Paracelsus görüşlerini simya temeline oturtmuştur. Ona göre bütün metaller kükürt, civa ve tuzdan meydana gelir; civa ruhu, tuz maddeyi, kükürt de enerjiyi temsil eder. Bu üç maddenin doğru oranlarda bir araya getirilmesi madde dönüşümünü, dolayısıyla altın elde edilmesini mümkün kılar. Paracelsus’un simya görüşünde ölümsüzlük hedefi de önemli bir yer tutar ve muhtemelen simya-tıp-kimya birlikteliğini doğurur. Bu birliktelikten modern kimya ve eczacılık uygulamaları ortaya çıkmıştır.
Gizli ilimlerin bir dalı olan simya daha çok sihir teknikleriyle ilişkili görülmüştür. Bu anlamıyla Grekçe “semeion” (semeia) kelimesinden türemiş Arapça bir kelime olan simiya bazan sihir ve rukye gibi terimlerle birlikte kullanılmıştır. Kelimenin zamanla kazandığı terminolojik anlamlar, simyanın esas itibariyle bir tür sihir olduğu fikrini daima muhafaza etmiştir. Ancak simya ile doğal varlık alanında hangi etkilerin hangi tekniklerle oluşturulduğuyla ilgili olarak farklı yaklaşımlar söz konusu olabilmektedir. Meselâ bazı durumlarda simya tekniğine harflerin gizli özellikleri de katılmakta ve doğal etkilerin bu yolla meydana getirilmesine simya denmektedir. Simya için kullanılan Batı terimlerinden onun anlamına en yakın olanı Arapça’da şa‘beze, Türkçe’de gözbağcılık kelimeleriyle ifade edilen “fantazmagori” (phantasmagorie) olup bu terim “gerçekle ilgisiz ve hızla değişen hayaller dizisi” ya da “illüzyona dayalı hayal oyunu” anlamına gelmektedir (Ullmann, Die Natur , s. 361-362).
İbn Haldûn geleneğe uyup simyayı sihir tekniklerinden biri olarak görmüştür. Düşünüre göre sihir işleminde uygulayıcının psişik güçleri kozmolojik bir rol üstlenir. İbn Haldûn, sihir sanatının İslâm dünyasındaki büyük temsilcisi diye ilân ettiği Câbir b. Hayyân’ın şahsında eski kimya ile simya tekniği arasında bir ilişki kurmaktadır. Buna göre belli türdeki cisimleri bir formdan diğer forma dönüştürme amacı taşıması bakımından kimyacı ile simyacı arasında fark yoktur. Çünkü söz konusu dönüşüm herkese açık bir işlemle değil kimyacı veya simyacının psişik gücünün sürece katılmasıyla mümkün olmaktadır ve bu durum yapılan işlemin sihir olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. İbn Haldûn eski Mısır ve Bâbil kültürüne ait sihir literatürünün İslâm dünyasına girmesi, Latin dünyasında daha sonra Geber adıyla anılacak olan Câbir ve Mecrîtî gibi müelliflerin bu sanatı Arap dilinde yeniden inşa etmesi gibi gelişmeler üzerinde durmaktadır. Ona göre bu sanatla ilgili olarak Arapça’da yazılmış en iyi kitap Mecrîtî’nin Latin dünyasında Picatrix adıyla bilinen Ġāyetü’l-ḥakîm isimli eseridir (Muḳaddime , III, 1147). İbn Haldûn, simya sanatının sihir tekniklerinin tılsım denilen türüne girdiğini söyler. Bu teknik bir semavî güce yahut sayıların gizli özelliklerine başvurarak uygulanır ve dış dünyada gerçek bir etki meydana getirir. Batı dillerindeki “talisman” kelimesiyle karşılanan tılsım Grekçe “telesme” kelimesinden gelmektedir (Ullmann, Die Natur , s. 362). “Gözbağcılık” anlamındaki sanat için şa‘beze kelimesini kullanan İbn Haldûn, dış gerçeklikle ilgisi olmayan hayaller üretme biçimindeki sihir sanatı için simya terimini kullanmaz. Ona göre bu teknikte uygulayıcı psişik güçlerini muhatabının hayal gücüne odaklamakta ve ortaya gerçekte var olmayan, ancak varmış gibi algılanan görüntüler çıkmaktadır (Muḳaddime , III, 1149-1150). İbn Haldûn, harflerin esrarı ilmiyle bir tür tılsım sanatı olarak gördüğü simya arasında bir ilişki görmektedir. Aslında harfler ilmi (ilm-i hurûf) simya ilminin bir alt disiplinidir ve bu ad mutasavvıflarca verilmiştir (a.g.e. , III, 1159). Nitekim dinî riyâzet yaşantısı da simya tekniklerini başarmaya imkân verir; ancak müslüman sûfîler mânevî tecrübe dünyalarında bunları başarmak gibi bir amaç gütmezler. Peygamberlerin dış dünyayı etkilemesi psişik güçlerle değil nübüvvete özgü olan ilâhî güç sayesinde olmaktadır (a.g.e. , III, 1163-1164). Sihir kategorisine giren tekniklerle ilgili olarak İbn Haldûn’un fıkhî görüşü son derece açıktır: İster dış dünyada gerçek bir etkiye yol açsın isterse bir gözbağcılıktan ibaret bulunsun sihrin her çeşidi dinî bakımdan kesinlikle yasaktır (a.g.e. , III, 1157).
Taşköprizâde simya ilmini tabii ilimlerin bir alt disiplini olarak görmektedir (Miftâḥu’s-saʿâde , III, 325). Sayısı onu bulan bu alt disiplinler arasında Türkçe’de yanlış olarak simya diye anılan eski kimyanın simya ilminden ayrı bir disiplin şeklinde zikredilmesi dikkat çekicidir. Taşköprizâde’ye göre simya kelimesi İbrânîce kökenlidir ve “Allah’ın ismi” anlamındaki Sîm-Yeh’ten türemiştir. Fiziğin bir alt disiplini olarak simya ilmi ise duyu algısı bakımından gerçekte var olmayan şeyleri sanki varmış gibi göstermek ve hava ortamını bir tür doğal yansıtma aracı gibi kullanarak fantazmagoriye dayalı görüntüler meydana getirmekten ibaret bir sihir sanatıdır. Söz konusu görüntüler havanın değişken tabiatı gereği kalıcı olmadığından algılanmaları da uzun süreli değildir. Bu görüntülerin nasıl oluşturulduğu ve sebepleri ise ancak ehil kimselere açıklanması gereken gizli bilgilerdendir. Taşköprizâde, sihir tekniğini uygulayan kişinin havas ve hurûf ilminin terkibinden oluşan karışık bir tekniğe başvurduğunu söylemekle yetinmektedir. Bu tür uygulamalara örnek olarak Evzâî, İbn Sînâ, Hallâc-ı Mansûr gibi ünlü şahsiyetler hakkında aktarılmış rivayetlere atıfta bulunan müellif İşrâkīliğin kurucusu Sühreverdî ile ilgili meşhur bir hikâyeyi özellikle vurgulamaktadır (a.g.e. , III, 340-341). Çeşitli kaynakların aktardığı bu hikâyeye göre Sühreverdî ve arkadaşları Dımaşk yakınlarında bir Türkmen çobanıyla alışveriş yapmak istemişler, pazarlığın anlaşmazlıkla sonuçlanması üzerine Sühreverdî sol elini Türkmen çobanına bırakıp uzaklaşmış, çoban da elinde Sühreverdî’nin kanlı eli olduğu halde kalakalmıştır. Dostlarının yanına döndüğünde filozofun sağ elinde bir mendilden başka bir şey yoktur. Muhtemelen hakkında çıkarılan bu söylentiler sebebiyle Sühreverdî gibi düşünürler, büyük bir entelektüel olmanın yanı sıra bir simya ilmi uzmanı diye anılmıştır (İbn Ebû Usaybia, s. 642-643; ayrıca bk. İbn Hallikân, VI, 269-270).
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D. B. MacDonald – [T. Fahd], “Sīmiyā”, EI2 (İng.) , IX, 612-613.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2009 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 37. cildinde, 218-220 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.