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ŞİNTOİZM Skip to content Geleneksel Japon dini.
Japonya’nın yerel dini olan Şinto (Şintoizm), tarih öncesi çağlardan kalma animistik inanç şekillerinin -Taoist, Budist ve Konfüçyüsçü unsurların da etkisiyle- Antikçağ’larda şekillenmeye başlayan modern biçimidir. Tarihî açıdan bakıldığında Ural-Altay halklarına ait animistik kökenli Şamanizm öğretisinin Japon adalarındaki uzantısı olarak da görülebilir. Bundan dolayı Şinto öğretisine ait pek çok unsurun eski Türk dinleri gibi Orta Asya kökenli dinlerde de karşılığının bulunduğu görülür.
Şinto aslen Çince (şen-tao) bir kelimedir ve “tanrıların yolu” anlamına gelir. Japonca karşılığı kami-no-miçi dir. Japon dinî metinlerinde, Japonlar’ın geleneksel dinlerini VIII. yüzyıldan itibaren Japonya’da hızla yayılan Budist inancından ayırmak amacıyla bu Çince söz benimsenmiştir.
Şintoizm’in bir kurucusu ve peygamberi olmadığı gibi klasik anlamıyla bir kutsal metni ve dinî kodeksi de yoktur. Şintoizm, daha ziyade ataların ruhlarıyla ilişkilendirilen tabiat üstü varlıklara veya güçlere (kami) belli ritüeller çerçevesinde tapınma, Japon geleneğine ve aileye saygı gösterme üzerine kurulu bir dinî öğreti veya hayat biçimidir. Şintoizm, aynı zamanda ilkel bir tabiatçılık anlayışından beslenen ve tabiatla insan arasında mevcut, görünen ve görünmeyen her türlü ilişkiye önem atfeden güçlü bir ahlâk sistemi geliştirmiştir. Bu tabiatçı ahlâk anlayışı, Konfüçyüsçü sosyal ahlâkın da etkisiyle Ortaçağ’dan itibaren günümüz Şintoizm’inin temelini oluşturmuştur. Şintoizm’in bir diğer özelliği Japonya ve Japon halkıyla özdeşleşmesi, dolayısıyla dışarıya kapalı bir din olmasıdır. Şintoizm’den doğan bazı yeni dinî akımlar hariç Şinto geleneğinde ihtidâ veya misyon faaliyeti yoktur.
Dinî bir sistem biçiminde Şintoizm’in ortaya çıkışı Japon tarihinde Yoyoi adıyla bilinen döneme (m.ö. 300 – m.s. 300 civarı) rastlar. Bunu izleyen Kofun döneminde (m.s. 300-550) günümüzdeki haline yakın bir şekil almıştır. Bu dönemde (m.s. V. yüzyıl) yazının Çin ve Kore yoluyla Japonya’ya girmesiyle Şinto metinleri kayda geçirilmiş, bu durum merkezî bir Şinto sisteminin gelişmesine imkân hazırlamıştır. Milâttan sonra VI. yüzyılda Japonya’ya giren Budizm VIII. yüzyılda güçlenerek Şintoizm’i etkilemiş, Budizm’e karşı Şintoist çevrelerde oluşan tepki Şintoizm’in standart hale getirilmesiyle sonuçlanmıştır. Bu arada Ise’de bulunan Şinto tapınağı merkezî bir tapınak statüsüne ulaşmıştır. Kojiki, Nihongi ve Taiho yasaları gibi metinlerin bu dönemde kayıt altına alınması da kısmen Şintoizm’in Budizm’e karşı örgütlenme amacını yansıtır. Aynı yüzyıllarda Japonya’ya giren bir başka yabancı öğreti olan Konfüçyüsçülük de Şintoistler tarafından benzer tepkiyle karşılanmıştır. Bununla birlikte hem Budizm’in hem Konfüçyüsçülüğün şehirli entelektüel ve bürokrat kesimlerinde yükselişi önlenememiştir.
Şintoizm modern yapısını büyük oranda 1600-1868 yılları arasını kapsayan Yedo döneminde kazanmıştır. Bu dönem için belirleyici olan en önemli değişimler Şintoizm’in millî bir din olarak algılanması ve devlet dini biçimine dönüştürülmesi, Budist ve Konfüçyüsçü etkilerden arındırma çabasına girilmesi ve birbirinden farklı Şinto gruplarının ortaya çıkması şeklinde özetlenebilir. Yedo dönemini izleyen iç savaşın ardından gelen Meiji restorasyonu döneminde Japonya’da Batı karşıtı ulusalcı bir anlayışın gelişmesine paralel şekilde Şintoizm de tamamen devletin kontrolüne girmiş ve 1871’de Din İşleri Bakanlığı kurularak Şintoizm devletin tek resmî dini (Şinbutsu bunri) haline gelmiştir. 1945’te Japonya’nın II. Dünya Savaşı’ndan yenik çıkmasına kadarki dönemde millî Şinto anlayışının yapılanması hız kesmeden devam etmiştir. Bu çerçevede Şintoizm’in toplumu birleştirici bir unsur halinde kullanılması ve halkın kendisine kutsallık izâfe edilen Japon imparatorunun nüfuzu altında birleştirilmesi amaçlanmış, böylece koyu bir yurt severlik bilinci oluşturulmuştur. Savaş sonrasında -Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nin isteği doğrultusunda- Şintoizm resmî din statüsünden çıkarılmış, daha ziyade halk inancı biçiminde devam etmiştir.
Günümüzde gerek Budist/Konfüçyüsçü/Taoist etkiler gerekse Şintoizm’in iç dinamiklerinden kaynaklanan tarihî şartlar dolayısıyla birbirinden farklı dört ana Şinto yorumu bulunmaktadır. En eski Şinto geleneklerini koruduğu kabul edilen Jinja Şinto (tapınak Şinto’su); çoğunlukla folklorik inançlarla şifacılık, büyücülük gibi çok eski animistik uygulamaların karışımından meydana gelen Minzoku Şinto (halk Şinto’su); XVIII. yüzyılda ortaya çıkan modernist-yenilikçi, bazı spiritüel inançlardan oluşan Kyoha Şinto (mezhep Şinto’su) ve Şintoizm’den kaynaklanan, fakat daha da özelleşerek neredeyse yeni bir dinî harekete dönüşen Şintokei Şinşukyo’dur (Şinto’dan gelen yeni yollar).
Vahye dayalı bir kavram çerçevesinde olmasa da Şintoizm’i çok tanrılı bir kutsallık doğrultusunda yorumlayan birtakım yazılı metinler Şintoistler arasında saygın bir yere sahiptir. Bunların başında Japon yazılı dinî edebiyatının ilk örneğini teşkil eden Kojiki gelir. Bugünkü haliyle VIII. yüzyılın başlarında meydana gelen Kojiki, Japon adalarının kutsallığı, Şinto tanrılarının öyküleri, dünyanın yaratılışı, Japonlar’ın mitolojik kahramanlarının hayatları gibi efsaneleri içerir. Benzer bir metin yine Japonlar’ın efsanevî tarihini anlatan ve kökeni VIII. yüzyıla kadar inen Nihongi’dir (Nihonşoki). Yazılış dönemlerinden çok daha eskiye uzanan şifahî gelenekleri derleyen bu metinler Şintoizm’in ana yazılı (kutsal) kaynaklarını oluşturur.
Teorik inanç ve gelişmiş bir dinsel kurallar sistemine sahip olmayan Şintoizm’in temelinde, kamilerle insanlar arasındaki ilişkiyi ve hayatın her yönünü kapsayacak biçimde uyumu ve sadeliği esas alan bir öğreti yer alır. Animistik dinlerin çoğunda rastlandığı üzere tanrısal güçlere karşılık gelen ve “tabiat ruhları” (yaşam güçleri) şeklinde açıklanan kamiler tabiattaki her şeyde mevcuttur. Evrendeki her türlü düzen onların insanlarla ilişkisi çerçevesinde varlığını devam ettirir. Tabiattaki her şeyde, dağlarda, ormanlarda, mağaralarda, sularda ve gökyüzünde çok sayıda kami bulunur. Bitki ve hayvan gibi canlı varlıklarda da kamiler vardır. İnsanların ruhları öldükten sonra kami haline dönüşür. Japon imparatorları (mikado) yaşarken de kamidir. Japon ırkının kendisinden yaratıldığına inanılan güneş tanrıçası Amaterasu kamilerin en önemlisidir. Bir kami kendi başına ne iyi ne de kötüdür. İnsanların kamilerle olan ilişkisi kamiyi insanın lehine veya aleyhine çevirebilir. Bu ilişkinin ana unsurunu ritüeller aracılığıyla her kaminin insan tarafından tatmin edilmesi teşkil eder.
Şinto ritüelleri ya kamilere adanmış tapınaklarda (jinja/jinsa) veya evlerdeki ibadete ayrılmış mekânlarda (kami-dara) icra edilir. En önemli Şinto tapınağı Honşu adasındaki Ise şehrinde bulunan Amaterasu Jinja’dır. Şinto ritüelleri günün belli vakitlerine göre düzenlenmiş değildir; daha çok herhangi bir kamiden şahsî bir talepte bulunmak amacıyla yapılır. Düzenli ritüeller bayram günlerinde (matsuri) uygulanır. Bunlardan biri her yıl ocak ayında yapılan ateş merasimidir. Düzenli ya da düzensiz bütün ritüeller kutsal mekânların bir köşesinde bulunan su havuzlarındaki arınma ritüeliyle başlar. El ve -artık pek uygulanmayan- ağız yıkama işlemiyle hem bedenî hem ruhî arınma gerçekleştirilir; ayrıca tapınakta yanan ateşin dumanı başın üzerinden geçirilir. Bu şekilde kişinin kaminin huzuruna çıkmaya hazır (günahlarından arınmış ve kutsanmış) hale gelmesi amaçlanır. İkinci aşama kamiye getirilen kurban veya takdimenin sunulmasıdır. Şinto takdimeleri pirinç rakısı (saki) ile pirinç veya başka bir şeyden yapılmış yiyecek takdimesinden (şinser) oluşur. Son aşama, el çırparak kamiyi çağırdıktan sonra kamiden talep edilen isteklerin söylenmesi ve belli duaların okunmasıdır. Tapınaklarda icra edilen ritüeller genellikle Şinto rahip ve rahibeleri tarafından yönetilir. Bazı özel günlerde ise din adamları müzik eşliğinde “kagura” adı verilen şamanik danslar yapar. Tapınağa girişte ayakkabılar çıkarılır ve “tori” denilen, sonlu âlemi tanrıların sonsuz âleminden ayırdığına inanılan kuş tüneği biçimindeki bir kapının altından geçilir. Tapınakların önüne asılan kutsal sicimler de aynı işlevi görür. Bayramlarda genellikle adına bayramın düzenlendiği kaminin heykeli bir tahtırevan üzerinde taşınır, sumo güreşi ve gösteriler yapılır. Oruç ve yemek bayram merasiminin diğer unsurlarındandır. Önemli bayramların başında 1 Ocak’ta kutlanan yeni yıl bayramı, ilkbahar (pirinç ekme) ve sonbahar (hasat şükranı) bayramları ile yılda iki defa Amaterasu adına ve yılda bir defa yerel kami adına kutlanan bayramlar gelir.
Şinto inancında kutsallık atfedilen belli bir merkez yoktur; bunun yerine başta Japon toprakları olmak üzere bütün tabiat kutsal kabul edilir. Fakat dağlara, özellikle de Fuji dağına kamilerin meskeni olduklarına inanıldığından saygı gösterilir ve her yıl çok sayıda kişi tarafından ziyaret edilir. Güneş Şinto sembolizminde önemli bir yere sahiptir. Japonya kelimesinin Japonca’daki karşılığı olan Nippon (Nihon) “Güneşin doğduğu ülke” anlamına gelir. Japon bayrağını oluşturan beyaz zemin üzerindeki büyük kırmızı nokta güneşi temsil eder. Ayna da güneş tanrıçası Amaterasu’nun ışığını yansıtması sebebiyle kutsal sembol olarak tapınaklarda ve evlerin ibadet mekânlarında bulundurulur. Ayrıca gerek tapınaklarda gerekse köy girişlerinde, köprülerde, yollarda ve dağ geçitlerinde koruyucu özelliğe sahip, hayvan veya insan şeklindeki bazı semboller kullanılır. Şinto öğretisinde temizliğe büyük önem atfedildiğinden evlerin girişine sabah akşam temizlik amacıyla su serpilmesi ya da girişe ve köşelere tuz konması âdeti vardır.
Bu dinde oldukça güçlü mitolojik anlatımlar mevcuttur. Büyük oranda Kojiki ve Nihongi’de geçen bu anlatımlar çoğunlukla evrenin yaratılışı ve yapısıyla ilgili konuları içerir. Şintoizm, yaratılış konusunda diğer çok tanrılı dinlerdeki kavramlara benzer bir kavram kurgusuna sahiptir. Evrenin kendi başına var olan kaotik bir düzlemden çıktığı kabul edilir. Yaratılış noktasında kamilere düşen görev karmaşa (kaos) durumundan düzen (kozmos) durumuna geçişi sağlamaktan ibarettir. Her şeyden önce yer ve gök birbirinden ayrılarak üç temel kami olan Ame no minaka, Taki mi musubi ve Kami musubi ortaya çıkar. Bu üç kami evreni belli bir denge durumuna getirdikten sonra diğer sekiz çift kamiyi yaratmaya başlar. Bunların yarattığı kamiler kuşağının son çifti olan eril unsur Izanagi ile dişil unsur Izanami hem Japon halkını hem Japon adalarını meydana getirir. Japonlar’ın en gözde kamisi olan güneş tanrıçası Amaterasu, Izanagi’nin gözünden doğar. Kozmik düzeni temsil eden Amaterasu’ya karşı kaosun sembolü olan Susano-o (Susano-wo) ise Izanagi’nin burnundan yaratılır. Gökleri ve yeryüzünü kaplayan aydınlık bölge Amaterasu’nun, denizler ve gizli varlıklar bölgesi Susano-o’nun yönetimine verilir. Fakat gökleri de hâkimiyetine almak isteyen Susano-o, Amaterasu’ya saldırır. Kaosun bu saldırısı yüzünden Amaterasu bir mağaraya girer ve oradan çıkmaz. Amaterasu’nun mağaraya kapanması tabiattaki düzeni alt üst eder; bunun üzerine diğer kamiler onun mağaradan çıkarılması için bir plan yapar. Öncelikle Amaterasu’nun mağaradan dışarıya bakmasını sağlamak amacıyla mağaranın önüne bütün kuşların üstüne tüneyeceği bir iskele inşa edilir. Bu iskele Japon inancına göre, bugün Japon tapınaklarının girişinde bulunan bir nevi kapı konumundaki torinin aslını oluşturur. Buraya konan kuşların çığlığı Amaterasu’nun merakını uyandırır ve dışarıya doğru bakar. İkinci aşamada Uzama adlı bir kami mağaranın önünde dans ederek Amaterasu’nun dikkatini çeker. Bu dans geleneğe göre günümüzde tapınaklarda icra edilen kagura dansının kökenidir. Daha sonra mağaranın dışından tutulan bir aynada kendi sûretini olağan üstü bir ışık şeklinde gören Amaterasu aynaya doğru giderken kamiler onu mağaranın dışına çekerler, böylece kozmik düzen yeniden temin edilmiş olur. Efsanenin geri kalan kısmında da büyük oranda Jimmu, Jingo, Yamato gibi mitolojik imparatorların hikâyeleri yer alır. Böylece uygulamadaki pek çok Şinto ritüelinin mitolojik esası vurgulanmak suretiyle sosyal yaptırım pekiştirilmeye çalışılır.
Birçok animist dinde olduğu gibi Şintoizm de ölüm sonrası hayat konusunda bir inanç sistemi geliştirmemiştir ve daha ziyade bu dünyayı vurgulayan bir anlayışa sahiptir. Bu konudaki temel öğreti bedeni terkeden ruhun kami haline geleceği şeklindedir. Bununla birlikte modern zamanlarda Şintoizm’de Budizm’in ruh göçü inancını benimseme eğilimi ortaya çıkmıştır. Cenaze merasimi de genellikle Budist inancına göre yapılmaktadır. Günümüzde 127 milyon olan Japon nüfusunun sadece 4-5 milyon kadarı saf Şinto dinine mensuptur. Geri kalan nüfusun büyük kısmı Şintoizm ile Budizm’in karışımından oluşan (Şinbutsu şugo), ancak Budizm’in daha baskın olduğu bir geleneğe bağlıdır. Ayrıca Konfüçyüsçülüğe tâbi olanlar da vardır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
W. G. Aston, Shinto: The Ancient Religion of Japan , London 1907.
D. C. Holtom, The Political Philosophy of Modern Shinto: A Study of the State Religion of Japan , Chicago 1922.
G. Kato, A Historical Study of the Religious Development of Shinto , Tokyo 1973.
M. Shoson, “The Relation of Philosophical Affairs in Japan”, The Japanese Mind , Tokyo 1973, s. 5.
S. Shunzo, “Shinto: Japan Ethnocentrism”, a.e. , s. 27.
H. O. Thompson, World Religions in War and Peace , Jefferson 1988, s. 127-140.
C. Scott Littleton, “Shinto”, Eastern Religions , New York 2005, s. 424-516.
M. J. O’Neal – J. S. Jones, “Shinto”, World Religions: Almanac , Detroit 2007, II, 393-417.
Kürşat Demirci, “Bir Din Olarak Şintoizmin Gelişim Süreci”, STAD , sy. 16 (2002), s. 76-79.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2010 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 39. cildinde, 177-179 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.