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SÖMÜRGECİLİK Skip to content
“Bir devletin kendi sınırları dışında kalan genelde deniz aşırı toprakları askerî müdahale başta olmak üzere çeşitli yollarla ele geçirmesi ve orada hâkimiyet kurup yerli toplumlar üzerinde siyasî, iktisadî ve kültürel alanlarda üstünlük sağlayarak bunların her türlü imkânlarını kendi menfaati için yağmalaması” şeklinde tarif edilebilen sömürgecilik, Antikçağ’dan modern zamanlara kadar gelen bir süreç içinde farklı şekillerde uygulanmış ve uluslararası ilişkilerin en kapsamlı anlaşmazlık ve çatışma konularından biri haline dönüşerek insanlık tarihini utanç verici sayfalarla doldurmuştur. Tarzını ve görüntüsünü değiştirmiş olmakla birlikte günümüzde de devam eden sömürgeciliğin bütün yönleriyle sistemli bir şekilde uygulanması XVI. yüzyılın başlarına rastlamaktadır.
Antikçağ’dan itibaren kendi bölgelerinde güçlenen pek çok devlet, hâkimiyet alanları dışındaki yerlere vatandaşlarından oluşturdukları küçük toplulukları gönüllü veya zorunlu olarak yerleştirmiştir. Başlangıçta bu yerleşmelere işaret etmek üzere Latince colunus ve colonia kelimeleri ortaya çıkmıştır. Bunlardan colonia (bir yere göçüp yerleşme) Roma İmparatorluğu döneminden itibaren “sömürge” anlamında kullanılmış ve daha sonra bundan coloniser (sömürgeleştirmek) ve colonisation (sömürgeleştirme) gibi kelimeler türetilmiştir. Özellikle modern dönemde sömürgeleştirmeye ve sömürgeciliğe Arapça’da isti‘mâr, sömürgeleştirilen yere müsta‘mere, Türkçe’de ise müstemleke denilmiş ve sömürmek fiilinden sömürge ve sömürgecilik kelimeleri türetilmiştir.
XIX. yüzyılın ortalarında giderek yaygınlaşan ve XX. yüzyılın başında yeryüzünün birkaç ülkesi hariç tamamını işgal ederek sömürgeleştiren Avrupalı büyük güçler, tarihte en fazla Roma dönemindeki sömürgeci teşkilâtlanma ve askerî güç kullanımı usulünden etkilenmiştir. Romalılar da modern Avrupa sömürgeciliğinde olduğu gibi yerlilerin imkânlarına el koymakla yetinmeyip onlara köle muamelesi yapmıştır. Milâttan sonra V. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Batı Roma’nın özellikle Kuzey Afrika’daki sömürgelerinde Vandallar tarafından yenilgiye uğratılmasıyla birlikte büyük bir çöküntü yaşaması, böylece Eskiçağ’ın sona erip Ortaçağ’ın başlamasıyla birlikte Akdeniz havzasında Bizans hâkimiyeti üstünlük kazanmış, Roma döneminin benzeri olan uygulamalar bu dönemde de devam etmiştir.
Yeni bir çağın başlamasıyla oluşan dönüşüm, İslâmiyet’in Arap yarımadası sınırlarını aşarak Asya, Afrika ve İber yarımadasından Avrupa’nın batı bölgelerine kadar yapılan fetih hareketleriyle hız kazanmıştır. Bu yayılma yeryüzünün en uzun ömürlü imparatorluğu olarak kabul edilen Roma hâkimiyetine göre çok ciddi farklılık arzetmekteydi. Çünkü ilk defa Medine’de şekillenen İslâm devletinden başlayarak Osmanlı Devleti’nin sona ermesine kadar Asya, Afrika ve Endülüs’te kurulan, sayıları 200’ü geçen müslümanların idaresindeki devlet yapılanmalarında Antikçağ, Ortaçağ, Yeniçağ ve özellikle modern çağdaki Avrupalılar’ın başlattığı sömürgeleştirme faaliyetlerinin temel gerekçelerine ve hedeflerine rastlanmamaktadır. Avrupa sömürgeciliğinde öne çıkan şey güçlünün oluşturduğu hukukun geçerli olması anlayışı İslâm idarelerinde bunun yanında hukuk gücünün de yer alması ilkesine dönüşmüş ve bu ikisinin birlikte yürütülmesiyle farklı bir adalet anlayışı ortaya çıkmıştır. İslâm fetihleri tek bir milletin yönetiminde devam etmeyerek Araplar’dan İranlılar’a, Türkler’e, Berberîler’e, zenci toplumlara, hatta Güney Asya toplumlarına kadar yaygınlık kazanmış ve fethedilen ülkelerin insanları kısa zamanda fatihler arasında yer almıştır.
İslâmiyet’in hızlı yayılışı karşısında hıristiyan dünyası özellikle Avrupa kıtasının içine kapanmak zorunda kaldı ve Akdeniz havzasıyla irtibatını müslümanlarla iş birliğine dayalı olarak yürütebildi. Bu durumdan büyük rahatsızlık duyan papalık Avrupa’daki iktidarları devamlı şekilde tahrik ederek bir taraftan İber yarımadasındaki Endülüs’ü müslüman hâkimiyetinden kurtarmaya gayret etmekte ve daha önemlisi Kudüs’ün de içinde bulunduğu Ortadoğu, Mısır, Kuzey Afrika ve Anadolu’daki İslâmî idareleri ortadan kaldırmak için her yolu denemekteydi. Nihayet dünya tarihinin en önemli olaylarından biri olarak kabul edilen Haçlı seferleriyle birlikte doğrudan müslümanların yaşadığı ülkeler hedef alındı, böylece buraları eskiden olduğu gibi yeniden sömürgeleştirme mücadelesi başlatıldı. XI. yüzyılın sonlarından XV. yüzyılın sonunda Endülüs’teki son müslüman hânedanı olan Nasrîler’in yıkılışına kadar uzanan üç asırda İslâm devletleriyle papalık merkezli hıristiyan güçler arasında büyük savaşlar cereyan etti. Bu anlamda Papa II. Urban’ın çağrısıyla başlatılan Haçlı seferlerinden ilki 1099 yılında Kudüs’ün ele geçirilmesiyle sonuçlandı. Bu seferlerin başarılı olduğu dönemlerde hıristiyan güçleri Güneydoğu Anadolu’dan Suriye ve Lübnan dahil Filistin’e kadar yayılarak İslâm hâkimiyetindeki toprakların belli bir kısmını işgal ettiler.
IX. (XV.) yüzyılın sonlarında yoğunlaşan coğrafî keşifler neticesinde ele geçirilen yerler yüzünden birbiriyle büyük bir rekabete girişen Portekiz ve İspanya arasında papanın da aracılığıyla Tordesillas Antlaşması imzalandı (7 Haziran 1494). Buna göre Batı Afrika açıklarındaki Yeşilburun adasının (Cabo Verde Island) 370 deniz mili batısından geçen bir meridyen çizildi ve Avrupa dışındaki kara parçalarından batı yarımkürede kalanlardan ele geçirilecek olanlar İspanya’ya, doğu yarımkürede kalanlar ise Portekiz’e ait olacaktı. Bu antlaşma modern sömürgecilik yolundaki ilk uluslararası antlaşmadır. Böylece modern sömürgeciliğin iki öncü ülkesi aralarındaki rekabete son verip yeni topraklar ele geçirmekte gecikmedi. İspanya, Kristof Kolomb kumandasında Yeni Dünya olarak adlandırılan Amerika kıtasını sömürgeleştirmeye girişirken Portekiz, Vasco da Gama öncülüğünde 1498 yılında Afrika’nın batı kıyılarını dolaşıp Ümitburnu’na ulaştı ve buradan Hindistan’a kadar uzanan bölgede geniş bir hâkimiyet alanı oluşturdu. Alman imparatorluk tacına da sahip olan İspanya Kralı Karlos (V. Karl), Akdeniz havzasını da idaresine almak istiyordu. Nitekim Fas’tan başlayarak 1510 yılına kadar geçen sürede bugünkü Libya’nın başşehri Trablusgarp dahil bölgedeki bütün mahallî müslüman idarelerine son verdi veya kendisine tâbi kıldı, yerleşim yerlerinin tamamına yakını tahrip edildi. Benzeri istilâ ve yıkım hareketlerini Portekiz de 1505’te Mozambik’te başlattı. 1517 yılında Cidde önüne kadar ulaşan donanmasıyla Hint Okyanusu sahillerinde ve Kızıldeniz çevresinde müslümanların hâkimiyetinde bulunan kırk civarındaki şehir devletini yakıp yıktı ve müslüman ahalinin çoğunu katletti. Dönemin iki güçlü İslâm devletinden biri olan Memlükler, Hint Okyanusu ve Kızıldeniz havzasında Portekizliler’e engel olamadılar ve yenik düştüler. Daha ziyade Avrupa’da hıristiyan güçleriyle mücadele eden Osmanlı Devleti, Afrikalı müslümanların yardım taleplerine cevap vererek 1516 yılından 1574 yılında Tunus’un kesin biçimde Osmanlı idaresine alındığı döneme kadar Kuzey Afrika bölgesini İspanyol istilâsından ve buna dayalı sömürgeleştirilme tehlikesinden kurtardı. Yine Cidde önüne gelen Portekiz donanması, 1517’de Kahire’deki Memlük hâkimiyetine son veren Yavuz Sultan Selim’in gönderdiği bir donanmayla Kızıldeniz havzasından Hint Okyanusu’na püskürtüldü. Burada Pîrî Reis’in kumandasında Hint Kaptanlığı adıyla bir deniz gücü kurularak Basra körfezi, Arap yarımadası ve Kenya’ya kadar uzanan Doğu Afrika sahillerindeki müslüman idareleri Portekiz istilâsından kurtarılarak uzun müddet sömürgeleştirilmeleri engellendi. XVI. yüzyılın başından itibaren yaşanan bu süreçte Osmanlı Devleti, Afrika kıtasının batı sahilleri hariç büyük bir kısmını, Arap yarımadasının Yemen dahil tamamına yakınını sömürgeci girişimlere karşı muhafaza altına aldı ve bu durum XIX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısına kadar devam etti. Bunun dışında Hindistan ve Açe dahil Endonezya’daki müslümanlara da yardım eli uzatılarak sömürgeci Portekiz ve Hollanda donanmalarının onlara daha fazla zarar vermelerinin önüne geçildi.
Amerika kıtası yerlilerinin yardımına koşacak herhangi bir devlet bulunmadığı için onların ülkeleri kısa zamanda istilâ edildi, toprakları ellerinden alındı, büyük bir çoğunluğu soy kırımı derecesinde katliama mâruz bırakıldı ve kültür varlıkları tamamen tahrip edildi. Yeni sömürgelerde büyük ölçüde yok edilen insan gücünün yerine geçmek üzere Osmanlı Devleti’nin hâkimiyet ve nüfuz alanı dışında kalan Batı ve Güney Afrika sahillerinden XIX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısına kadar devam eden dört asırlık zaman içinde başta Portekizliler olmak üzere İspanyollar, Hollandalılar, Fransızlar, İngilizler ve diğer Avrupa devletlerine mensup tüccarlar tarafından 100 milyon civarında insan köleleştirilip götürüldü. Tarihte benzerine rastlanmayan şekilde yürütülen köle ticaretinde Afrika’nın hür insanları bir ticaret malı haline getirilerek kıtalar arası kurulan köle pazarlarında satıldı.
Modern çağda Avrupalılar’ın başlattığı sömürgeleştirme faaliyetlerini haklı gösterme düşüncesi XIX. yüzyılda kuvvet kazandı ve II. Dünya Savaşı sonrasına kadar devam etti. Savaşın bitmesiyle birlikte sömürgecilik farklı toplumların bir arada yaşamasına engel bir durum olarak görülmeye başlandı. Öte yandan sömürgelerde bağımsızlık mücadeleleri yaygınlaştı. Bu mücadeleler sonunda bazı ülkeler bağımsızlıklarına kavuşmalarına rağmen ekonomik anlamda eski sömürgeci devletlerin denetimi altında tutuldu. Sömürgeciliğin Avrupa toplumlarınca benimsenmesinde veya sömürgeleştirme adına yapılanların insan haklarını ihlâl ettiği ileri sürülerek karşı çıkılmasında din adamları, filozoflar, siyaset bilimciler ve devlet adamlarının önemli payı oldu. İspanyol asıllı ilâhiyatçı ve siyaset teorisyeni Francisco de Vitoria (ö. 1546), Avrupalılar’ın sömürgeleştirdikleri yerlerdeki toplumların hukukî ve ahlâkî hakları olduğunu savunanların başında gelmekteydi. F. de Vitoria, insanın temel haklarından olan hayat ve hürriyet hakkına saygı gösteren bir sömürgeciliği ve hıristiyanlaştırma hareketini övmekteydi. Hollandalı hukukçu Hugo de Groot (ö. 1645), Avrupa’da mezhep kavgalarının ve sömürgecilik rekabetinin en fazla yaşandığı dönemde özellikle sömürgelerde yerlilere karşı takınılan tavır karşısında her insanın sahip olması gereken tabii haklarını savunarak uluslararası hukuk alanının öncülerinden oldu.
Avrupa devletlerini sömürgeciliğe sevkeden önemli etkenlerden biri ekonomik istismar yanında stratejik gerekçeler olup (monopolitik ticaret sistemi) birbirlerine rakip konumundaki ülkeler, ortaya yeni sömürgecilerin çıkmasını engellemek ve ticareti başkalarını karıştırmadan anavatan-koloni ikilemiyle sürdürmek istemekteydi. Bu anlamda merkantilist önlemler alınır, mal taşımacılığının anavatan bandırasıyla yapılmasına, ucuz ham madde temini ve işlenmiş malların ihracına önem verilir, anavatan pazarı sömürgelerin aksine yüksek gümrük duvarlarıyla korunurdu. Öte yandan yeryüzünün önemli noktaları ele geçirilerek diğer devletlerin girişimleri kontrol altında tutulmaktaydı. Yine köle ticaretindeki tekel mümkün mertebe korunup belli şirketlerin yararı gözetilmekteydi. Akdeniz’de Cebelitârık Boğazı, Basra körfezinin Arap yarımadası kıyıları, Kızıldeniz’de Bâbülmendep Boğazı, Hint Okyanusu adaları bu açıdan son derece önemli stratejik yerler arasındaydı. XIX. yüzyılda sanayileşme ve teknolojik gelişmenin de verdiği imkânlarla kendi din ve kültürlerini üstün gösterip sömürülen ülkelerdeki insanların alt tabakadan olduğunu iddia ederek onları “medenîleştirme” hakkını kendilerinde görmekteydiler. Bununla beraber bu zihniyet değişikliği, daha önceki yüzyılda kitleleri köleleştirmekle kalmayıp insandan dahi saymayan sömürgecilere göre özverili bir davranış sayılır.
Sömürgecilerin en önemli faaliyetlerinden biri, Hıristiyanlığı sömürülen ülkelerin yerlilerine kabul ettirmeleridir. Bu anlamda en büyük desteği başta Katolik ve Protestan kiliseleri verirken Anglikan kiliseleri ve diğerlerinin de bu konuya büyük katkıları oldu. Böylece Latin Amerika, Güney Asya ve Sahrâaltı Afrikası’nda misyonerler vasıtasıyla geniş kampanyalar yürütülerek Hıristiyanlık büyük bir hızla yayıldı. Cizvitler Çin, Hindistan ve Japonya’da hep ön planda olurken Protestan papazları özellikle Madagaskar, Çin ve Havai’de etkili oldular. Hz. Îsâ’nın mesajını yayma bahanesiyle oralara giderken devletleri de onları ordularıyla tehlikelere karşı koruyordu. Amerika’da XVI. yüzyıl öncesinde hiç hıristiyan nüfus yokken bugün 1 milyara yaklaşan nüfusuyla kıtada yaşayanların tamamına yakınını hıristiyanlar oluşturmaktadır. Yine 1900’lerin başında Afrika kıtasında toplam 10 milyon civarında tahmin edilen hıristiyanların sayısı bugün 1 milyarı aşmakta olan nüfus içinde 350 milyon civarındadır. Asya’da yine misyonerlik faaliyetleri neticesinde hıristiyan olanların sayısı 300 milyondan fazladır. XV. yüzyılda başlayıp XX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında sona eren modern Avrupa sömürgeciliği dört aşamalı bir süreç takip etmiştir. Bunlardan birincisi 1763 Paris Antlaşması’na kadar devam ederken ikinci dönem 1875 yılına, üçüncü dönem I. Dünya Savaşı’nın başladığı 1914 yılına ve sonuncusu II. Dünya Savaşı’nın bittiği 1945 yılına kadar sürdü. Bundan sonrası 1970’li yılların ortalarına kadar bütün sömürgelerin bağımsızlıklarını elde ettikleri dönem olarak kabul edilmektedir.
XVI. yüzyılda büyük bir sömürge imparatorluğu kuran Portekiz ve İspanya’yı Hollanda ve İngiltere takip etti. Özellikle Kraliçe Elizabeth zamanında İngiltere dikkatini deniz aşırı ülkelere verip yeni sömürgeler elde etmeye yöneldi. XIX. yüzyılın başında bütün sömürgecilerin önüne geçerek büyük bir üstünlük sağladı. Yaşanan sonu gelmez savaşlar Kıta Avrupası’nı parçalanmaya sürüklerken İngiltere elde ettiği refah düzeyi, nüfusunun hareketliliği ve ekonomisinin yayılmasıyla dünyayı sömürgeleştirme faaliyetinde öne çıktı ve bu alandaki başarılarıyla diğer Avrupalı sömürge idarecilerine örnek oldu. İngiltere’nin bu yüzyılda sömürgeleştirdiği ülkelerin toplam yüzölçümü 35 milyon km2 ’yi bulurken bu ülkeyi 12,5 milyon km2 ile Fransa takip ediyordu.
Giderek güçlenen Almanya’da sömürgecilik konusu XIX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında ciddi tartışmalara yol açtı. XVI. yüzyılın büyük Alman tüccar ailesi Welserler tarafından Venezuela’da elde edilen ticaret kolonisi ve XVII. yüzyılda Brandenburg / Prusya Dukalığı’nın Batı Afrika’daki kolonisi kalıcı olmadı. XIX. yüzyılın başlarından itibaren Alman sömürgeciliğinin fikir babaları, sömürgeciliği refah kaynağı ve artan nüfusun başka yerlere dağıtılması için önemli bir fırsat olarak görmekteydi. Böylece Almanya, Güneybatı Afrika’da bugünkü Namibya’yı, Doğu Afrika’da Zengibar Sultanlığı’nın hâkimiyetinde olan Tanzanya ve çevresini, Batı Afrika’da Togo ve Kamerun’u, Okyanusya bölgesinde kısmen de olsa Yeni Gine’yi sömürgeleştirdi. Ancak uzak yerlerdeki yerleşimlerin bir iki nesil içinde Almanlık’tan uzaklaşılmasına yol açtığı gerçeğinden hareketle bilhassa asrın son çeyreğine doğru ekonomik bir değer arzeden başlıca parçaları çoktan paylaşılmış olan dünyada kendilerine pek de yer kalmadığını görerek gözlerini coğrafyalarının uzantısında yer alan Osmanlı Devleti’nin zengin ve bâkir topraklarına diktiler (Drang nach Osten politikası).
Almanya’dan sonra Avrupalı devletler içinde sömürgecilik faaliyetlerine en son katılan devletler arasında Belçika ve İtalya gelmektedir. Sömürgeci devletler Afrika’yı paylaşmak, sömürge meselelerini modern hukuk kurallarına bağlamak ve aralarındaki sürtüşmeleri ortadan kaldırmak amacıyla Almanya’da bir araya gelerek bir antlaşma imzaladılar (Kasım 1884). Belçika Kralı II. Leopold, 1870 yılından itibaren sömürge haline getirmek üzere bugünkü Kongo Demokratik Cumhuriyeti ile şahsen ilgilendi. Bu amaçla 1884’te bir tür sömürge örgütü olan Uluslararası Kongo Derneği’ni kurdu ve daha sonra burası Bağımsız Kongo Devleti adıyla sömürge haline getirildi (15 Kasım 1908). İtalya da XIX. yüzyıl sonunda sömürge edinme siyasetine katıldı. Güçsüzlüğü sebebiyle anavatana yakın yerleri tercih etmek zorunda kaldı ve Afrika’da henüz istilâ edilmeyen yerler üzerinde yoğunlaştı. Bugünkü Eritre ve Etiyopya topraklarını içine alan Habeşistan’ı, Somali ve Osmanlı Devleti’nin bir vilâyeti olan Trablusgarp’ı (Libya) ele geçirdi (1912).
Avrupa sömürgeciliğinin XV. yüzyılın sonlarından XX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısına kadar yaklaşık beş asır devam etmesinde ilk iki asırdan sonra kurulan ticarî şirketlerin büyük rolü oldu. Fransa’da Compagnie des Indes’in kurulması ve İngilizler’in 1607-1732 yılları arasında oluşturdukları sömürge şirketleri vasıtasıyla sistem gittikçe gelişti. Özellikle Afrika ve Güney Asya’nın sömürgeleştirilmesinde United African Compagny, Royal Niger Compagny, British East African Compagny ve British South Asia Compagny önemli rol oynadı. Almanlar’ın Deutsche Kolonial Gesellschaft, Belçikalılar’ın Association Internationale du Congo ve İtalyanlar’ın Filonardi şirketlerinin her biri birer sömürgeci devlet gibi faaliyet göstererek ele geçirilen ülkelerde kendi bütçelerine, kanunlarına, güvenlik güçlerine sahip oldular ve diplomatik ilişkilerde bulundular.
Sömürgecilik büyük nüfus hareketlerine yol açmış, böylece dünyanın pek çok yerinde nüfus değişimlerine sebep olmuştur. Anavatanlardan sömürgelere yapılan gönüllü göçler, köleleştirilerek Afrika’dan Amerika’ya 100 milyona yakın insanın taşınması, bir sömürgeden diğerine göçlerin yaptırılması, Burkina Fasolular’ın Fildişi Sahili’ne, Bengladeşliler’in Birmanya’ya, Hindistanlılar’ın İngilizler’in Hint Okyanusu adaları Karayip denizindeki ada sömürgelerine, Lübnanlılar’ın Fransız Afrikası’na taşınması bunun en ciddi örnekleri oldu. Avrupa ve özellikle İngiltere’den gelen çok sayıda insanın yerleştiği ülkelerde yerli halklar imha edildi.
Avrupalılar tarafından geliştirilen sömürgeci sistemde kurulan yeni şehirler, yapılan kara ve demir yolları, inşa edilen limanlar, hastahaneler ve okullar tamamıyla oralarda bulunan sömürgeciler için olup bunlardan yerliler hiçbir şekilde istifade edemiyordu. Avrupa’dan gelenlerle yerlilere bulaşan hastalıklar büyük kitlelerin ölümüne sebep olunca mecburen yerlileri de tedavi etmeye başladılar. Eğitim konusunda sadece kendilerine yardımcı olabilecek kimselere belli seviyeye kadar eğitim verdiler. Öyle ki Afrika sömürgelerinde geleneksel eğitim kurumları yok edilip yerlerine açılan okullarda en çok orta eğitim seviyesinde eğitim verildiği için kıtanın tamamında üniversite mezunu olanların sayısı 1950’li yıllarda bile birkaç yüz kişiyi geçmiyordu.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA M. Abdul Aziz, Japan’s Colonialism and Indonesia, The Hague 1955, tür.yer.; R. Emerson, Sömürgelerin Uluslaşması: Asya ve Afrika Halklarının Ortaya Çıkışları (trc. Türkkaya Ataöv), Ankara 1965, s. 62-90; G. de Bosschère, “Le néo-colonialisme: essai de définition”, De l’impérialisme à la décolonisation (ed. J. Berque – J.-P. Charnay), Paris 1965, s. 415-432; A. Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized, Boston 1967, s. 90-111; J. Suret-Canale, French Colonialism in Tropical Africa: 1900-1945 (trc. T. Gottheiner), London 1971, tür.yer.; Cemâl Hamdân, İstrâtîciyyetü’l-istiʿmâr ve’t-taḥrîr, Beyrut 1403/1983, s. 49-54, 105-108; J.-P. Biondi, Les anticolonialistes: 1881-1962, Paris 1992, s. 14-15, 28, 31, 39; M. A. Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa, Cambridge 1998, tür.yer.; C. M. Cipolla, Silahlar ve Avrupa Sömürgeciliği (trc. Taşkın Temiz), İstanbul 1998, s. 9, 46-53; M. Ferro, Sömürgecilik Tarihi: Fetihlerden Bağımsızlık Hareketlerine Kadar, 13. Yüzyıl-20. Yüzyıl (trc. Muna Cedden), İstanbul 2002, s. 48-50, 74-80, 94, 133-140, 169-172; Ahmet Kavas, “Afrika’da Fransız Sömürgeciliği”, Sömürgecilik Hareketlerinde Fransa ve Anadolu’da Fransız-Ermeni İşbirliği (ed. Orhan Kılıç – Mehmet Çevik), Elazığ 2003, s. 69-78; a.mlf., “Yeni Sömürgeciliğin Afrika Toplumlarını Sosyoekonomik, Dinî, Siyasî Alanlarda Birliğe Zorlaması”, İslâmiyât, VIII/2, Ankara 2005, s. 25-38; J.-P. Sartre, Colonialism and Neocolonialism (trc. A. Haddour v.dğr.), London 2006, s. 37-54; Orhan Yüksel, “Sömürge ve Sömürgecilik”, TA, XXIX, 356-359; Christopher Edens, “Colonization”, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, New York 1997, II, 52-55; Şit Tufan Buzpınar, “Fransa”, DİA, XIII, 184-187; İsmail Hakkı Göksoy, “Hollanda”, a.e., XVIII, 226-227; Azmi Özcan, “İngiltere”, a.e., XXII, 299-302; Şerafettin Turan, “İtalya”, a.e., XXIII, 448-452; Refîk Cûycâtî, “el-İstiʿmâr”, el-Mevsûʿatü’l-ʿArabiyye, Dımaşk 2000, II, 187-196; Jamal Malik, “Colonialism”, Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (ed. R. C. Martin), New York 2004, I, 152-155.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2009 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 37. cildinde, 394-397 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.