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SULTAN Skip to content İslâm dünyasında XI. yüzyıldan itibaren genellikle hükümdar için kullanılan unvan.
Sözlükte “güç, kuvvet, otorite, iktidar” anlamında soyut bir kavram olan sultân (çoğulu selâtîn) Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de “hüccet, mûcize, mutlak güç ve üstünlük” mânasında geçmekle birlikte (bk. SULTAN), “Cihadın en faziletlisi zalim sultan katında hakkı söylemektir” (Ebû Dâvûd, “Melâḥim”, 17; Tirmizî, “Fiten”, 13); “Sultan velisi olmayanın velisidir” (Ebû Dâvûd, “Nikâḥ”, 19; Tirmizî, “Nikâḥ”, 14) gibi hadislerin varlığı (Wensinck, el-Muʿcem, “slṭ” md.), kelimenin Asr-ı saâdet’ten itibaren “yönetici, hükümdar, devlet başkanı” anlamında kullanıldığını göstermektedir. Aynı kökten gelen saltanat “sultanlık, hükümdarlık ve iktidarın veraset yoluyla intikali” demektir. Sultan kelimesinin bir unvan olarak siyasî-idarî mânada ilk defa Abbâsî Halifesi Hârûnürreşîd tarafından veziri Ca‘fer b. Yahyâ el-Bermekî’ye verildiği kaydedilmektedir (Kalkaşendî, V, 448 [burada Hâlid b. Bermek], IX, 403-404; Lewis, s. 51). Abbâsîler’de merkezî otoritenin zayıfladığı dönemde tayin edildikleri bölgelerde siyasî güç kazanan valilerin yanı sıra Büveyhî hükümdarları fiilî durum itibariyle sultan diye adlandırılmıştır.
Sultan unvanı bugünkü Afganistan ve Doğu İran’da müstakil bir hâkimiyet kuran Gazneli Mahmud (998-1030) için devrin kaynaklarında yaygın biçimde geçmektedir. Bununla birlikte kelimenin İslâm dünyasında siyasî bir unvan olarak yayılması Selçuklular zamanında olmuştur. Sikkeler üzerinde ilk defa Selçuklu Devleti’nin kurucusu Tuğrul Bey adına 435’te (1043-44) Hemedan’da bastırılan parada “es-sultânü’l-muazzam” şeklinde yer almıştır (Hennequin, s. 27-28). İsfahan şehrinin mahallî hâkimi Ebû Mansûr Ferâmurz, İsfahan’da bastırdığı sikkelerde daha 434 (1042-43) yılından itibaren Tuğrul Bey’in adını “es-sultânü’l-muazzam” unvanı ile kaydetmiştir. Tuğrul Bey’in bu unvanı kısa süre sonra Abbâsî Halifesi Kāim-Biemrillâh tarafından tasdik edilmiştir (Busse, s. 184, nr. 48, 50). 449’da (1058) Bağdat’a giren ve bizzat Halife Kāim-Biemrillâh tarafından tahta oturtulan Tuğrul Bey’e halife “sultânü’l-meşrik ve’l-mağrib” unvanını vermiştir (Ahbârü’d-devleti’s-Selcûkıyye, s. 13).
Sultan unvanının kullanımı Selçuklu hânedanının sonraki üyeleri tarafından devam ettirilmiştir. Çağrı Bey’in oğlu İlyâs’ın daha Tuğrul Bey hayatta iken Belh şehrinde 454 (1062) yılında bastırdığı paralarda “es-sultânü’l-muazzam” unvanının yer aldığı görülmektedir (Sylloge Numorum Arabicorum Tübingen, s. 92-93, nr. 755-756). Kaynaklarda Alparslan’ın “sultânü’l-âlem” unvanını taşıdığı kaydedilmektedir. Sâve savaşından (1119) sonra Büyük Selçuklu tahtını ele geçiren Sencer için sikkelerde “es-sultânü’l-a‘zam” unvanı kullanılırken yeğeni Irak Selçuklu Hükümdarı Mahmûd b. Muhammed Tapar “es-sultânü’l-muazzam” unvanıyla zikredilmiştir (Köymen, s. 132-134).
XI ve XII. yüzyıllarda sultan kelimesi, Farsça bir unvan olan “şah”la birleştirilerek “sultanşah” şeklinde bilhassa şehzadeler için özel bir ad olarak kullanılmıştır. Selçuklu hânedanının Kirman ve Suriye kolu ile Hârizmşahlar Devleti’nde bu adı taşıyan şehzadelerin varlığı bilinmektedir. Bununla birlikte kelime bu dönemde de siyasî-idarî anlamını korumuştur. XIII. yüzyıl ortalarına ait bazı resmî belgelerden sultan unvanının Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti’nde hükümdarın özel alâmeti olarak âdeta bir tuğra gibi kullanıldığı anlaşılmaktadır.
Kelime Selçuklular’dan sonra kısa sürede İslâm dünyasına yayılmış ve Hârizmşahlar’ın yanı sıra Eyyûbîler tarafından da benimsenmiştir. XIII. yüzyılın ortalarında kullanımı daha da yayılarak devam etmiştir. Sultanın bu dönemde zaman zaman şairler tarafından küçük mahallî hükümdarlar için de kullanıldığı görülmektedir (Mirzâ M. Kazvînî, III, 153). Unvanın gelişimi XIV. yüzyılda Memlük Devleti’nde devam etmiştir. Memlük Devleti’nde kelimenin zaman zaman “sultânü’l-İslâm, es-sultânü’l-a‘zam, sultânü’s-selâtîn” şeklinde kullanıldığı görülmektedir.
Sultan kelimesi İran coğrafyasında İlhanlılar’ın kuruluşunu takip eden yıllarda yerini Türkçe “ilhan” ve “han” unvanlarına bırakmıştır. Kaynaklarda İlhanlı hükümdarlarından ilk defa Ahmed Teküder’in (1282-1284) İslâmiyet’i kabulünün ardından han unvanı yerine sultan unvanını kullanmaya başladığı kaydedilmektedir. Nitekim 681-683 (1282-1284) yıllarında bastırılmış sikkelerde Ahmed Teküder’in adı Uygur ve Arap harfleriyle Sultan Ahmed şeklinde zikredilmiştir. Argun Han’ın 681’de (1282) Musul’da darbedilen bir sikkesinde Sultan Argun adı görülmektedir (Diler, s. 308).
1295 yılında İslâmiyet’i kabul ederek Müslümanlığı İlhanlı Devleti’nin resmî dini haline getiren Gāzân Han yaygın olarak “pâdişâh-ı İslâm” unvanını kullanmakla birlikte sikke ve kitâbelerde sultan unvanının “sultân-ı âdil, sultân-ı İslâm, sultânü’s-selâtîn, sultânü selâtîni’l-Arab ve’l-Acem, es-sultânü’l-a‘zam, es-sultânü’l-muazzam, sultânü’ş-Şark ve’l-Garb” gibi birleşik şekilleri yer almıştır. İlhanlı Devleti’nde kelimenin siyasî unvan olarak kullanımı Olcaytu Han zamanında daha da yayılarak devam etmiştir. Kaynaklarda Olcaytu’nun genellikle “sultânü’l-İslâm” unvanı ile zikredildiği görülmektedir (Reşîdüddin, vr. 50a -56a ). Bu dönemde Olcaytu tarafından Zencan yakınlarında kurulan yeni yerleşim yerine Sultâniye adının verilmiş olması dikkat çekmektedir.
Kroniklerin yanı sıra epigrafik ve nümismatik kaynaklar sultan unvanının Celâyirli, Timurlu, Karakoyunlu ve Akkoyunlu hükümdarları tarafından yaygın biçimde kullanıldığını göstermektedir. Timurlular döneminin önde gelen tarihçilerinden Hâfız-ı Ebrû ile Nizâmeddîn-i Şâmî’nin halife, sultan ve şah ile hilâfet, saltanat ve padişahlık kelimelerini eş anlamlı olarak kullandıkları görülmektedir. Şah İsmâil tarafından Safevî Devleti’nin kurulmasının ardından sultan yerine şah kelimesinin unvan olarak ön plana çıktığı belirtilmektedir. Kelime bu tarihten sonra İran coğrafyasında vali ve zâbit gibi resmî idarecilere unvan olarak verilmiştir. Sultan unvanı Osmanlı Devleti’nde ilk defa Orhan Gazi’nin sikkelerinde olmak üzere padişahlar tarafından kullanılmıştır (bk. PADİŞAH). XV. yüzyıldan itibaren unvanın zaman zaman “sultânü’s-selâtîn, es-sultân ibnü’s-sultân, sultânü’l-berreyn ve’l-bahreyn” şeklinde güçlendirilmek suretiyle Osmanlı hükümdarının adlarından hemen önce yer aldığı bilinmektedir.
İslâm hilâfet teorisinde aynı anda iki halifenin bulunamayacağı, dolayısıyla bütün müslümanların tek bir halifeye bağlı olması temel prensip şeklinde kabul edilmekle birlikte Abbâsî hilâfetinin yanında Şiî-Fâtımî ve ardından Endülüs Emevî halifeliğinin ortaya çıkışı İslâm dünyasında fiilî olarak aynı anda üç halifenin varlığı sonucunu doğurmuştur. Bu sebeple çeşitli dönemlerde kurulan müslüman devletlerin hükümdarları, halifenin mânevî otoritesine saygı duyarak sultan unvanını alıp siyasî hâkimiyetlerini kabul ettirmiştir. Bunun bir sonucu olarak İslâm dünyasında farklı coğrafyalarda hüküm süren aynı halifeye bağlı sultanlar söz konusu olmuştur. Sultanlar halife adına hutbe okutup bağlılıklarını ifade ederken halife de saltanatlarını tasdik etmekte, verilen unvan, lakap ve hediyelerle siyasî otoritelerini kuvvetlendirmekteydi. Nitekim Abbâsî halifelerini Sünnî İslâm dünyasının mânevî lideri kabul eden Selçuklu sultanları genellikle onlara saygıda kusur etmemeye özen göstermişler, halifelerin, saltanatlarını onaylayıp kendilerine unvan ve lakap tevcih etmesini büyük bir şeref saymışlardır (Özaydın, Prof. Dr. Işın Demirkent Anısına, s. 422). Bununla birlikte Tuğrul Bey’in Bağdat seferinden itibaren Selçuklu sultanları siyasî otoriteyi ellerinde tutmaya ve halifeleri halk üzerindeki mânevî nüfuzları sebebiyle sadece dinî bir lider olarak kalmaya zorlamışlardır. Saltanat mücadelelerinde hânedan mensupları kendilerini meşrû sultan ilân ettirmek için halife nezdinde girişimde bulunmaktaydı. Öte yandan aynı dönemde hüküm süren sultanlardan zayıf olanlar güçlü olanına tâbi olmakta, diğer bir ifadeyle onu metbû tanımaktaydı.
Sultan kelimesinin XIII. yüzyıldan itibaren siyasal anlamı dışında zaman zaman sûfî, ârif ve mutasavvıflar için de kullanıldığı görülmektedir (sultânü’l-meşâyih, sultânü’l-meşâyih ve’l-ârifîn, bk. Herrmann, s. 152, 178). Ayrıca Osmanlı Devleti’nde XVI. yüzyıldan itibaren özel ismin sonuna eklenmek suretiyle “hanım sultan” veya “vâlide sultan” şeklinde padişahların anneleri, kızları veya hanımları ile bazan şehzadeler için kullanılmıştır. Sultan kelimesine Osmanlı tahrir defterlerindeki kayıtlarda kişi adı olarak da rastlanmaktadır. Günümüzde de bazı İslâm devletlerinde hem siyasî-idarî mânada hem de şahıs ismi olarak kullanımı devam etmektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Ḥudûdü’l-ʿâlem (Sütûde), s. 61, 67-69; Râvendî, Râḥatü’ṣ-ṣudûr, s. 85, 105; Ahbârü’d-devleti’s-Selcûkıyye (Lugal), s. 13; Reşîdüddin Fazlullāh-ı Hemedânî, Beyânü’l-ḥaḳāʾiḳ, Süleymaniye Ktp., Kılıç Ali Paşa, nr. 834, vr. 50a -56a ; Kalkaşendî, Ṣubḥu’l-aʿşâ, V, 448; IX, 403-404; M. Altay Köymen, “Meskukata Göre Büyük Selçuklu İmparatoru Sencer ile Irak Selçuklu Devleti Hükümdarı Mahmud’un Vassallık Münasebetleri”, Zeki Velidi Togan’a Armağan, İstanbul 1955, s. 131-136; Mirza M. Kazvînî, Yâddâşthâ-yı Ḳazvînî (nşr. Îrec Efşâr), Tahran 1336 hş., III, 153-154; H. Busse, Chalif und Grosskönig: Die Buyiden im Iraq (945-1055), Beirut 1969, s. 184, nr. 48, 50; T. Khodzhaniiazov, Katalog Gosudavstva Velikikh Sel’dzhukov, Askhabad 1979, s. 5-23, 88-120; G. Hennequin, Catalogue des monnaies musulmanes de la Bibliothèque Nationale: Asie pré-mongole, Paris 1985, s. 20, 27-28; Osman Turan, Türkiye Selçukluları Hakkında Resmî Vesikalar, Ankara 1988, s. 109, 142; Hasan el-Bâşâ, el-Elḳābü’l-İslâmiyye, Kahire 1409/1989, s. 323-339; B. Lewis, The Political Language of Islam, Chicago 1991, s. 51-53; Abdülkerim Özaydın, Sultan Berkyaruk Devri Selçuklu Tarihi (485-498/1092-1104), İstanbul 2001, s. 115-119; a.mlf., “Büyük Selçuklularda Unvan ve Lakaplar”, Prof. Dr. Işın Demirkent Anısına (haz. Abdülkerim Özaydın v.dğr.), İstanbul 2008, s. 421-433; Sylloge Numorum Arabicorum Tübingen: Balḫ und die Landschaften am oberen Oxus [XIV c Ḫurâsân III] (ed. F. Schwarz), Tübingen-Berlin 2002, s. 92-93, nr. 755-756; G. Herrmann, Persische Urkunden der Mongolenzeit: Text- und Bildteil , Wiesbaden 2004, s. 152, 157, 162, 178; Ömer Diler, İlhanlar: İran Moğollarının Sikkeleri (haz. Emine Nur Diler v.dğr.), İstanbul 2006, s. 281-288, 308, 343-370; Erdoğan Merçil, Selçuklular’da Hükümdarlık Alâmetleri, Ankara 2007, tür.yer.; C. E. Bosworth, “The Titulature of the Early Ghaznavids”, Oriens, XV (1962), s. 210-233; Mehâb Dervîş Lutfî, “Elḳāb ʿale’l-meskûkâti’l-İlḫâniyye”, Sumer, XXI/1-2, Bağdad 1965, s. 157-166; M. Bâkır el-Hüseynî, “Dirâse taḥlîliyye ve iḥṣâʾiyye li’l-elḳābi’l-İslâmiyye”, a.e., XXVII/1-2 (1971), s. 185-231; XXVIII/1-2 (1972), s. 153-185; Coşkun Alptekin, “Selçuklu Paraları”, Selçuklu Araştırmaları Dergisi, III, Ankara 1971, s. 435-591; Abdülhay Habîbî, “Kelime-i Sulṭân”, Âryânâ, XXIX/5, Kâbil 1350/1971, s. 80-83; J. H. Kramers, “Sulṭān”, İA, XI, 24-28; a.mlf. – [C. E. Bosworth], “Sulṭān”, EI2 (İng.), IX, 849-851, 854; O. Schumann, “Sulṭān”, a.e., IX, 851-853; Ousmane Kane, “Sulṭān”, a.e., IX, 853; Dihhudâ, Luġatnâme, XVII/B, s. 589-595.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2009 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 37. cildinde, 496-497 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.