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TEKÂLÎF Skip to content Osmanlı maliyesinde devletin talep ettiği vergi ve harçların genel adı.
Sözlükte “yükümlülük” anlamına gelen teklîf kelimesinin çoğulu olan tekâlîf devletin talebini ifade etmek için belgelerde tekâlîf-i emîriyye şeklinde de geçer. Toprak, hayvan mahsulleriyle arazi, bina vb.nden alınan vergi ve resimler tekâlîf-i emîriyyeden sayılır. İslâm devletlerinde vergiler “tekâlîf-i şer‘iyye” ve “tekâlîf-i fevkalâde” diye ikiye ayrılabilir. Şer‘î hükümlere dayanan ve ayrıntıları fıkıh kitaplarında yazılı bulunan tekâlîfe tekâlîf-i şer‘iyye, bunların dışında kalan ve devlet tarafından halka yüklenen vergilere tekâlîf-i fevkalâde denir. Fevkalâde vergiler de “tekâlîf-i örfiyye” ve “tekâlîf-i şâkka” olarak iki kısımdır. Tekâlîf-i örfiyye, aslında şeriatın kaynaklarından biri olan örfe dayanan ve genellikle savaş gibi ihtiyaçlarda tahsil edilen vergilerdir. Osmanlılar’da avârız türü vergiler böyledir. Bu tür vergilere “tekâlîf-i âdiye (mu‘tâde)” adı da verilir. Tekâlîf-i örfiyyeye şeriatın cevaz verdiği genellikle kabul edilmiştir. Çünkü bu tür vergilerde hakkaniyet ve adalet olduğu var sayılır. Tekâlîf-i şâkka ise ağır vergiler olup haklarında şer‘î cevaz bulunmayan ve genellikle haksız kabul edilen yükümlülüklerdir.
Hulefâ-yi Râşidîn dönemine kadar daha çok tekâlîf-i şer‘iyye ön planda tutulmuş, ardından gelen İslâm devletlerinde ihtiyaçlar çoğaldığından tekâlîf-i örfiyyeye başvurulmuştur. Bununla beraber savaş ganimetlerinden beşte birin alınması kuralı hariç diğer vergilerin hiçbiri için Kur’an’da bir oran belirlenmemiş, zekâtla ilgili oranlar Hz. Peygamber’in sözlerinden ve uygulamasından çıkarılmıştır. Birçok vergi oranı sonradan tesbit edilmiş ve zamana, mekâna, günün ihtiyaç ve şartlarına göre değişmiştir. Kur’an’da bir oranın belirlenmemesi vergi nisbetlerinin ayarlanmasının devlete bırakılmış olduğu şeklinde yorumlanabilir. Devlet giderlerini sınırlandıran Kur’an’da gelir kaynaklarıyla ilgili bir hükme yer verilmemiştir. Böylece vergi oranlarını düzenlemede olduğu gibi yeni gelir kaynakları araştırma hususunda da devlete bir serbestlik tanınmıştır. Esasen Hz. Peygamber servet ve gelirlerde zekâttan başka topluma ayrılmış hakların da olduğunu söylemiştir. Bu durumda tesbit edilen oranların asgari ölçülerde olduğu anlaşılır. Öte yandan İslâm, dönemlere ve bölgelere göre değişmek üzere toplumun özel ihtiyaçlarını karşılayan ve “nevâib” denilen diğer vergilerin konması hususunda yetki verir. İhtiyaç duyulduğunda maslahata, örf ve âdete göre yeni vergiler konmuştur.
Tekâlîf-i Şer‘iyye. Tekâlîf-i şer‘iyyenin esasları dörttür: Zekât, öşür (çoğulu âşâr), haraç ve cizye. Osmanlılar’da alanı genişletilen ve tekâlîf-i şer‘iyye arasında gösterilen vergi türleri ise şunlardır: Cizye, öşür, dimos, sâlâriyye, basma akçesi, boyunduruk, ağalık, kulluk hakları, çift akçesi, timar sisteminin uygulanmadığı yerlerin eyâlât-ı mümtâze vâridâtı, imaretler mâl-i maktûu, gümrükler, madenler, emlâk-i emîriyye, emlâk-i mazbuta, hâsılât-ı mütenevvia, mukātaat ve iltizâmât bedelâtı, selâmet akçesi, toprak bastı parası, çit parası, ağnam, kasaphâne, salhâne, serhâne, kellehâne, paçahâne bâclarıyla kelle, ayak, ciğer parası gibi vergiler ve âdet-i ağnâm, ondalık ağnam, geçit, otlak, yaylak, kışlak, ağıl, dem, balta, serçin, derçin, zebhiyye, mürde bâcı, deve, camus, öküz, inek, at, ester, merkep, canavar, dönüm, zemin, çift, çiftbozan, tapu, âsiyâb, bahçe, bostan, bağ, fevâkih, küvâre, kovan, penbe, harîr, şira, mücerred, raiyyet, bennâk, bâd-ı hevâ, caba akçesi, arûs, ispenç, cürm ü cinâyet, ihtisap, yava ve kaçkun, beytülmâl resimleri gibi resim ve harçlar. Bunlar düzenli biçimde tahsil edildiğinden zekât, öşür, haraç ve cizye temel kavramları çerçevesine alınmış veya böyle yorumlanmıştır. Ebüssuûd Efendi’nin, Osmanlı timar sisteminin ve hazine gelirlerinin temelini oluşturan bu vergileri şer‘î prosedüre uygun şekilde açıkladığı dikkati çekmektedir. XVII. yüzyılda bu tür vergilerin şer‘î kategoriden çıkarıldığı ve “bid‘at” olduğu gerekçesiyle yasaklandığı da vâkidir.
Tekâlîf-i Örfiyye. Özellikle savaş yıllarında ihtiyaca göre daha çok hâne, aile, çift, ocak gibi bir esasa dayalı olarak tarhedilen vergi, resim ve harçları ifade eder. Osmanlılar’da II. Bayezid zamanından itibaren avârız vergisinin alınmaya başlandığı rivayet edilirse de bu, Lutfi Paşa’nın Âsafnâme ’sinde geçen ifadenin yanlış anlaşılmasından kaynaklanmıştır. Çünkü avârız muafiyetlerinin daha eskiye gittiği ve Anadolu beylikleri döneminde de bulunduğu bilinmektedir. Başlangıcı ne olursa olsun avârız vergileri Osmanlı bütçelerinde düzenli olmayan gelirlerin başlıcalarını teşkil etmekteydi. Bu vergiler, XVII. yüzyıldan itibaren özellikle peş peşe yapılan savaşlar yüzünden düzenli vergiler arasında yer almış ve imdâd-ı seferiyye (imdâdiyye) vergisinin toplanmasının ardından payı düşmüştür. Tanzimat döneminde pek çok türü ve tahsis şekli olan bu vergiler kaldırılarak tek bir vergi getirilmek istenmiştir. Mahalle ve köy düzeyinde belirlenen vergi yükünün âdil dağıtılması için öncelikle hânelerin gelir ve servetlerinin bilinmesi gerekliydi. Bu amaçla Tanzimat’ın ilk yıllarında yaygın bir gelir ve servet sayımı yapılmaya girişilmiş, fakat bu uygulamada başarı sağlanamamıştır. 1844 yılında daha sistemli şekilde başlanan ve ülkenin büyük bir kesiminde tamamlanan temettuât sayımlarıyla bunun gerçekleştirilmesine çalışılmıştır. Ancak Tanzimat’tan sonraki yirmi yıl içinde bu verginin de tekâlîf-i örfiyyede olduğu gibi hâne, ocak, çift esasına göre dağıtımına devam edilmiştir. Yeni bir teşebbüs, 1858’den itibaren daha çok tapu ve kadastro tahriri sayılabilecek bir sayım faaliyetine girişilmesidir. Bunların neticesinde temettu‘ vergisi denen yeni bir servet vergisi ortaya çıkmıştır. Yirmi yıla yakın bir süre uygulanan bu vergiyle de önemli bir gelir elde edilememiştir. 1880’de yapılan yeni bir düzenleme ile bu vergi son dönemlere kadar varlığını sürdürmüştür.
Tekâlîf-i örfiyye ile avârız-ı dîvâniyye birlikte anılmaktaydı; bu sebeple avârız-ı dîvâniyyeye tekâlîf-i dîvâniyye adı da verilmekteydi. Sayısı doksan yediye kadar çıkan ve giderek olağan hale gelen tekâlîf-i örfiyye genel tanımlaması altında avârız akçesi ve avârız türü vergiler, nüzül, sürsat, iştirâ, asâkir-i bahriyye, gabyâr, kendir, kereste, kömür, güherçile, menzil, mübâşiriyye, şütürbânân, tâyinat, kürekçi bedelleriyle kalyoncu ve tersane bedeliyyeleri gibi türler yer alıyordu. İmdâdiyye (imdâd-ı seferiyye ve hazariyye) vergileri ise XVII. yüzyılın sonlarında II. Viyana Kuşatması şartları altında önce kredi biçiminde konan, ardından vergiye dönüştürülen ve XVIII. yüzyılın ilk yarısında Prut Savaşı esnasında savaş ve barış şartlarına göre farklılaştırılıp olağan hale getirilen yükümlülüklerdi. XIX. yüzyılın başlarında özellikle vezirler ve taşra zenginlerinden toplanmaya başlanan iâne-i cihâdiyye doğrudan doğruya merkeze gönderildiği için imdâdiyyeden ayrılıyordu. Böylece kelime anlamı “olağan dışı” olan avârız türü vergiler sonraları olağan hale gelmiştir. Yine tekâlîf-i örfiyye aslında geçici vergiler iken savaşların ve iç meselelerin sona ermemesi yüzünden hemen hepsi sürekli yükümlülük şeklini almış, içlerinden bazıları kurallara aykırı olarak konulduğu için tekâlîf-i şâkkaya benzemiştir. Bu vergiler İstanbul’da, o zamanlar farklı şekilde yönetilen Suriye, Halep, Bağdat, Basra, Musul, Trablusgarp, Bingazi, Yemen vilâyetlerinden (eyâlât-ı mümtâze) başka Anadolu, Rumeli ve Arabistan vilâyetlerinde uygulanmaya başlanmıştır.
Tekâlîf-i örfiyye türü vergiler avârız hânesi esasına göre belirlenirdi. Her yıl vali, mütesellim, voyvodalar, memleketin ileri gelenleri ve kadılar tarafından “rûz-ı Hızır” ve “rûz-ı kāsım” itibariyle iki taksitte alınmak üzere tevzi defterleri düzenlenir ve bu defterler şer‘iyye sicillerine yazılırdı. Tevzi defterlerinde sarraf, muameleci, murâbahacı ve faizcilerden alınan kredilerin faizleri kaydedilip bunlar sarrâfiyye, akçe başı, güzeşte, senelik nemâ adı altında halktan toplanırdı. Sekban, kale topçuları ve humbaracıları için tâyinat ve giyim eşyası ile gülle imal ve nakil harcamaları, sefine-kayık harcamaları, eşkıya ve kaçakçıları takip eden görevlilerin ihtiyaçları ve ulûfeleri de tevzi defterine yazılırdı. Yangın, sel ve depremden zarar görenlere yapılacak yardımlarla valilerin konaklarına gelen fakirlere, dervişlere, seyyahlara, meczuplara verilen sadaka ve bahşişler, memurlardan toplanan yardımlar yine tevzi defterlerine geçirilirdi. Bazı memur, kâtip ve hademenin ücretleri, ulaştırmada kullanılan develer için yapılan harcamalar, emlâk mal kâtiplerinin maaşları, devlet binalarının tamiratı ve tefrişatı bedelleri halktan tahsil edilirdi. Beklenmedik masraflar için konan aralık tevzileri de ahaliden istenirdi. Kısas karşılığı olan diyetten bile dörtte birle onda bir arasında vergi alınırdı. Tayyârât gibi gelirler de tekâlîf-i örfiyyeye dahil bulunuyordu. Yine avâid-i hademe ve avâid-i mu‘tâde; bâc, yasak, yol, meks, derbend ve tırtıl resimleri; cevâiz, hediye, katık, kumanya, nân, ulûfe, zahîre, nevâle, peksimet, çizme bahaları; ahz-i vekâlet, bab, baha, defter, evâmir, ferman, hademe, i‘lâm, kaydiye, kitâbet, reddiyye, mahkeme harçları; yazıcı, ceyb-i hümâyun, mukabele akçeleri; daire, sefine, kayık, konak, köprücü, derbendci, suyolcu, beldâran, sekbanlar, topçular, humbaracılar, beygir, devir, mürûr ve ubûr masrafları; ayrıca mürûriyye, Bâb-ı Âlî tâmiratı, devâir tefrişatı, güzeşte, han ve çayır kirası, huddâmiyye, kethüdâiyye, iâne-i hükkâmiyye, ihzâriyye, izn-i sefîne, kalemiyye, kâtib-i emlâk tahsisatı, kâtibiyye, kudûmiyye, maâş-ı maliyye, muhzıriyye, öşr-i diyet, reddiyye-i temessük, ruba-nüvâs, sarrâfiyye, selâmetlik, senelik nemâ, taahhüt temessükâtı, taâmiyye, tahsildâriyye, tebrîkiyye, tebşîriyye, tevziat, iânât ve semerât adı altında çeşitli yükümlülükler tekâlîf-i örfiyyeden sayılırdı.
Bu yükümlülüklerin bir kısmı kara ve deniz askerlerinin çeşitli ihtiyaçlarını karşılamaya yönelikti (mukabele akçesi, avârız akçesi, menzil bedeli, konak masrafı, han ve çayır kirası, bedel-i nüzül, peksimet-bahâ, zahîre-bahâ, ulûfe-bahâ, kumanya-bahâ, tâyinat bedeli, nân-bahâ, katık-bahâ, taâmiyye, nevâle-bahâ, kürekçi bedeli, tersane bedeliyyesi, kalyoncu bedeliyyesi, gabyâr bedeli, bedel-i asâkir-i bahriyye, kürekçiyân-ı avârız). Harc-ı ferman, harc-ı evâmir, tebşîriyye, harc-ı bahâ, kudûmiyye, cevâiz, hediyye-bahâ, kaftan-bahâ, ruba-nüvâs yükümlülükleri ise vezirler, müşirler, valiler, hâkimler ve mutasarrıflar gibi yüksek memurlarla ilgili fermanlardan ve emirlerden alınan harçlarla büyük memurların işe başladıklarında verdikleri bahşişlerdi. İâne-i hükkâmiyye, bedel-i mübâşiriyye, huddâmiyye, kethüdâiyye, kalemiyye, kâtibiyye, avâid-i hademe, harc-ı bâb, harc-ı defter, ihzâriyye, muhzıriyye, harc-ı hademe, harc-ı mahkeme, harc-ı kitâbet, yazıcı akçesi, kaydiyye harcı, i‘lâm harcı, ahz-i vekâlet harcı ve tahsildâriyye teklifleri, kadı ve nâiblerin sicil kayıtlarıyla memur, kâtip, tahsildar, mübâşir, muhzır ve hademe gibi hizmetlilerin maaşları karşılığında ödenen harçlardı. Daire, beygir, mürûr ve ubûr, devir masrafları büyük memurların ve maiyetlerinin masraflarından halka düşen paylardı. Taahhüt temessükâtı, reddiyye-i temessük, harc-ı reddiyye müteahhit ve mültezimlerden alınıyordu. Derbend resmi, selâmetlik, bâc, yasak, yol resmi, mürûriyye, tırtıl resmi ve resm-i meks tüccardan derbend, geçit ve köprülerden geçtiklerinde tahsil edilen bedellerdi. İzn-i sefîne harçları gemilerden alınırdı. Bu resimler her devletin gemisine göre değişirdi. Öte yandan tekâlîf-i örfiyye birçok muafiyete konu olmuştur. Meselâ baruthânelerle tophâne, tersane ve diğer fabrikalar için gerekli olan güherçile, kömür, kereste, kendir gibi ham maddeler tedarikiyle görevli olan halk tekâlîf-i örfiyyeden muaftı. Yine askerî ve ticarî yolların bakımı ve geçiş güvenliği, su yollarının yapım ve tamiri gibi işlerle görevlendirilen halk köprücü, beldâr, derbendci, suyolcu resimleri gibi tekâlîf-i örfiyyeden affedilmiştir. Bütün bu uygulamalar birçok yolsuzluğu da beraberinde getirmiştir. Devlet zaman zaman bunlarla ilgili yasaknâmeler yayımlamışsa da bunların pek etkili olmadığı anlaşılmaktadır. Tanzimat’tan sonra bu yükümlülüklerden çoğu kaldırılmıştır. Yine Tanzimat’tan sonra emlâk ve arazisi bulunmayanların avârız hânesine bağlı tekâlîften muaf tutulması istenmiştir.
Tekâlîf-i Şâkka. “Güç yetirilemeyecek kadar ağır vergiler” demektir ve genellikle memurların halktan aldıkları izinsiz vergiler için kullanılmıştır. Haklarında şer‘î cevaz olmadığı gibi çıkarılan ferman ve adâletnâmelerle yasaklanan bu vergilerin teftiş akçesi, devir, harc-ı bâb, masârif-i sancak, saray tamiri, esb-bahâ, hil‘at-bahâ, kaftan-bahâ, na‘l-bahâ, zahîre-bahâ, öşr-i diyet gibi isimler taşıdığı belgelerden anlaşılmaktadır. Bir bakıma tekâlîf-i şâkka tekâlîf-i örfiyye içinde mütalaa edilmiş, çeşitlenerek birbirinden ayrılmaz hale gelmiştir. Hangi tür vergilerin tekâlîf-i örfiyye, hangilerinin tekâlîf-i şâkka olduğu konusundaki tereddütler belgelere de yansımış, çoğunlukla bu ikisi birbirinin eş anlamlısı gibi kullanılmıştır. Nitekim imdâdiyyelerle ilgili belgelerde bu vergilerin tekâlîf-i şâkkanın yerini tutmak üzere ihdas edildiği vurgulanır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Abdurrahman Vefik, Tekâlif Kavâidi , İstanbul 1328, tür.yer.
Mustafa Akdağ, Türkiye’nin İktisadî ve İçtimaî Tarihi , İstanbul 1974, I-II, tür.yer.
a.mlf., Türk Halkının Dirlik ve Düzenlik Kavgası: Celalî İsyanları , Ankara 1975, s. 45-61.
Ahmet Tabakoğlu, Gerileme Dönemine Girerken Osmanlı Mâliyesi , İstanbul 1985, tür.yer.
a.mlf., Türk İktisat Tarihi , İstanbul 2005, tür.yer.
Yavuz Cezar, Osmanlı Maliyesinde Bunalım ve Değişim Dönemi , İstanbul 1986, s. 53, 65, 283, 330.
Coşkun Çakır, Tanzimat Döneminde Osmanlı Maliyesi , İstanbul 2001, tür.yer.
Baki Çakır, Osmanlı Mukataa Sistemi (XVI-XVIII. Yüzyıl) , İstanbul 2003, tür.yer.
Neşet Çağatay, “Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Reayadan Alınan Vergi ve Rüsumlar”, DTCFD , V (1947), s. 495, 501.
Halil İnalcık, “İslâm Arazi ve Vergi Sisteminin Teşekkülü ve Osmanlı Devrindeki Şekillerle Mukayesesi”, AÜ İlâhiyat Fakültesi İslâm İlimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi , sy. 1, İstanbul 1959, s. 29-46.
a.mlf., “Resm”, EI2 (İng.) , VIII, 486-487.
Tevfik Güran, “Tanzimat Döneminde Osmanlı Maliyesi: Bütçeler ve Hazine Hesapları, 1841-1861”, TTK Belgeler , XIII/17 (1988), s. 213-364.
Ömer Lutfi Barkan, “Avârız”, İA , II, 14-15.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2011 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 40. cildinde, 336-337 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.