Theorising the Hedging Strategy: National Interests, Objectives, and Mixed Foreign Policy Instruments

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 13 Sayı: 2, 193 – 214, 16.07.2024

Ivan Gonzalez Pujol

https://doi.org/10.20991/allazimuth.1480020

Öz

Kaynakça

  • Asian Development Bank. “Asia Regional Integration Center: Free Trade Agreements.” Asia Regional Integration Center. n.d. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://aric.adb.org/database/fta
  • Bloomfield, Alan. “To Balance or to Bandwagon? Adjusting to China’s Rise during Australia’s Rudd–Gillard Era.” The Pacific Review 29, no. 2 (2016): 259–282.
  • Boon, Hoo Tiang. “The Hedging Prong in India’s Evolving China Strategy.” Journal of Contemporary China 25, no. 101 (2016): 792–804.
  • Boucher, Jean-Christophe. “The Cost of Bandwagoning: Canada-US Defence and Security Relations after 9/11.” International Journal: Canada’s Journal of Global Policy Analysis 67, no. 4 (2012): 895–914.
  • Chen, Ian Tsung-Yen, and Alan Hao Yang. “A Harmonized Southeast Asia? Explanatory Typologies of ASEAN Countries’ Strategies to the Rise of China.” The Pacific Review 26, no. 3 (July 1, 2013): 265–288.
  • “China COVID-19 Vaccine Tracker.” Bridge Beijing. October 11, 2021. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https:// bridgebeijing.com/our-publications/our-publications-1/china-covid-19-vaccines-tracker/.
  • Chung, Jae Ho. “East Asia Responds to the Rise of China: Patterns and Variations.” Pacific Affairs 82, no. 4 (2009): 657–675.
  • Ciorciari, John David. “The Balance of Great-Power Influence in Contemporary Southeast Asia.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 9, no. 1 (2009): 157–196.
  • Ciorciari, John David. The Limits of Alignment: Southeast Asia and the Great Powers since 1975. Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2010.
  • “COVID-19 Science Macro Report: Science Based Forecasts for the Short- and Long-Term.” Airfinity. September 24, 2021. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://www.airfinity.com/articles/airfinitys-covid-19-forecast-for-china-infections-and-deaths
  • Ferguson, Chaka. “Soft Power as the New Norm: How the Chinese-Russian Strategic Partnership (Soft) Balances American Hegemony in an Era of Unipolarity.” PhD dissertation, Florida International University, 2011.
  • Fiori, Antonio, and Andrea Passeri. “Hedging in Search of a New Age of Non-Alignment: Myanmar between China and the USA.” The Pacific Review 28, no. 5 (2015): 679–702.
  • García Cantalapiedra, David. “Spanish Foreign Policy, the United States and Soft Bandwagoning.” In Contemporary Spanish Foreign Policy, edited by David García Cantalapiedra and Ramon Pacheco Pardo, 82-105. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.
  • Gonzalez-Pujol, Ivan. “Teoría y Práctica de La Estrategia Hedging: Descifrando La Política Exterior Japonesa Ante La Incertidumbre Del Ascenso de China.” PhD. dissertation, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, 2019.
  • Goh, Evelyn. “Great Powers and Hierarchical Order in Southeast Asia: Analyzing Regional Security Strategies.” International Security 32, no. 3 (2008): 113–157.
  • Goh, Evelyn. Policy Studies 16: Meeting the China Challenge: The U.S. in Southeast Asian Regional Security Strategies. Washinton: East-West Center Washington, 2005.
  • Grigorescu, Alexandru. “East and Central European Countries and the Iraq War: The Choice between ‘Soft Balancing’ and ‘Soft Bandwagoning,’” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 41, no. 3 (2008): 281–299.
  • Haacke, Jürgen. “The Concept of Hedging and Its Application to Southeast Asia: A Critique and a Proposal for a Modified Conceptual and Methodological Framework.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 19, no. 3 (2019): 375–417.
  • He, Kai, and Huiyun Feng. “If Not Soft Balancing, Then What? Reconsidering Soft Balancing and U.S. Policy toward China.” Security Studies 17, no. 2 (2008): 363–395.
  • He, Kai. “Institutional Balancing and International Relations Theory: Economic Interdependence and Balance of Power Strategies in Southeast Asia.” European Journal of International Relations 14, no. 3 (2008): 489–518.
  • Hornung, Jeffrey W. “Japan’s Growing Hard Hedge against China.” Asian Security 10, no. 2 (2014): 97–122. Jackson, Van. “Power, Trust, and Network Complexity: Three Logics of Hedging in Asian Security.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 14, no. 3 (2014): 331–356.
  • Jaffrey, Sana. “How the Global Vaccine Divide Is Fueling Indonesia’s Coronavirus Catastrophe.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. August 5, 2021. Accessed October 14, 2021, https://carnegieendowment. org/2021/08/05/how-global-vaccine-divide-is-fueling-indonesia-s-coronavirus-catastrophe-pub-85107
  • Jerdén, Björn, and Linus Hagström. “Rethinking Japan’s China Policy: Japan as an Accommodator in the Rise of China, 1978-2011.” Journal of East Asian Studies 12, no. 2 (2012): 215–250.
  • Johnston, Alastair Iain, and Robert S. Ross, eds. Engaging China: The Management of an Emerging Power. Abingdon: Routledge, 1999.
  • Keating, Vincent Charles, and Jan Ruzicka. “Trusting Relationships in International Politics: No Need to Hedge.” Review of International Studies 40, no. 4 (October 2014): 753–770.
  • Kikuchi, Tomoo, Kensuke Yanagida, and Huong Vo. “The Effects of Mega-Regional Trade Agreements on Vietnam.” Journal of Asian Economics 55 (2018): 4–19.
  • Koga, Kei. “The Concept of ‘Hedging’Revisited: The Case of Japan’s Foreign Policy Strategy in East Asia’s Power Shift.” International Studies Review 20, no. 4 (2017): 633–660.
  • Korolev, Alexander. “Systemic Balancing and Regional Hedging: China–Russia Relations.” The Chinese Journal of International Politics 9, no. 4 (2016): 375–397.
  • Kuik, Cheng-Chwee. “‘Smaller States’ Alignment Choices: A Comparative Study of Malaysia and Singapore’s Hedging Behavior in the Face of a Rising China.” PhD dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 2010.
  • Kuik, Cheng-Chwee. “How Do Weaker States Hedge? Unpacking ASEAN States’Alignment Behavior towards China.” Journal of Contemporary China 25, no. 100 (2016): 500–514.
  • Kuik, Cheng-Chwee. “The Essence of Hedging: Malaysia and Singapore’s Response to a Rising China.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 30, no. 2 (2008): 159–185.
  • Kuik, Cheng-Chwee. “Variations on a (Hedging) Theme: Comparing ASEAN Core States’Alignment Behavior.” In Light or Heavy Hedging: Positioning between China and the United States, edited by Gilbert Rozman, 11-26. Washington: Korea Economic Institute of America, 2015.
  • Kuik, Cheng-Chwee, and Gilbert Rozman. “Introduction.” In Light or Heavy Hedging: Positioning between China and the United States, edited by Gilbert Rozman, 1-9. Washington: Korea Economic Institute of America, 2015.
  • Le, Hong Hiep. “Vietnam’s Hedging Strategy against China since Normalization.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 35, no. 3 (2013): 333–368.
  • Lee, Ji Yun Lee. “Hedging Strategies of the Middle Powers in East Asian Security: The Cases of South Korea and Malaysia.” East Asia 34, no. 1 (2017): 23–37.
  • Lim, Darren J., and Rohan Mukherjee. “Hedging in South Asia: Balancing Economic and Security Interests amid Sino-Indian Competition.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 19, no. 3 (2019): 493–522.
  • Lim, Darren J., and Zack Cooper. “Reassessing Hedging: The Logic of Alignment in East Asia.” Security Studies 24, no. 4 (2015): 696–727.
  • López i Vidal, Lluc, and Àngels Pelegrín. “Hedging against China: Japanese Strategy towards a Rising Power.” Asian Security 14, no. 2 (2018): 193–211.
  • López i Vidal, Lluc, and Àngels Pelegrín. “Cambio y Continuidad En La Política Exterior y de Seguridad de Japón (1989-2009): La Transformación de La Doctrina Yoshida y La Adopción de Una Estrategia Hedging Ante El Ascenso de China.” PhD dissertation, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 2011.
  • Mahadevan, Renuka, and Anda Nugroho. “Can the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership Minimise the Harm from the United States–China Trade War?” The World Economy 42, no. 11 (2019): 3148–3167.
  • Massie, Justin. “Toward Greater Opportunism: Balancing and Bandwagoning in Canada-US Relations.” In Game Changer: The Impact of 9/11 on North American Security, edited by Jonathan Paquin and Patrick James, 49-64. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2014.
  • Matsuda, Yasuhiro. “Engagement and Hedging: Japan’s Strategy toward China.” The SAIS Review of International Affairs 32, no. 2 (2012): 109–119.
  • McDonough, David S. “Getting It Just Right: Strategic Culture, Cybernetics, and Canada’s Goldilocks Grand Strategy.” Comparative Strategy 32, no. 3 (2013): 224–244.
  • Medeiros, Evan S. “Strategic Hedging and the Future of Asia‐Pacific Stability.” The Washington Quarterly 29, no. 1 (2005): 145–167.
  • Medeiros, Evan S. China’s International Behavior: Activism, Opportunism, and Diversification. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2009.
  • Michishita, Narushige, and Richard J. Samuels. “Hugging and Hedging: Japanese Grand Strategy in the Twenty-First Century.” In Worldviews of Aspiring Powers: Domestic Foreign Policy Debates in China, India, Iran, Japan and Russia, edited by Henry R. Nau and Deepa M. Ollapally, 167-203. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  • MINDEF Singapore. “ASEAN and China Successfully Conclude ASEAN-China Maritime Exercise.” MINDEF Singapore. October 27, 2018. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://www.mindef.gov.sg/web/portal/mindef/news-and-events/latest-releases/article-detail/2018/october/27oct18_nr.
  • National Security Council and Cabinet of Japan. “Medium Term Defense Program (FY2014-2018).” National Security Council and Cabinet of Japan. December 17, 2013. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://www.mod. go.jp/j/approach/agenda/guideline/2014/pdf/Defense_Program.pdf.
  • National Security Council and Cabinet of Japan. “National Defense Program Guidelines for FY 2014 and Beyond.” National Security Council and Cabinet of Japan. 2013. Accessed date June 5, 2023. http://www.mod.go.jp/j/approach/agenda/guideline/2014/ pdf/20131217_e2.pdf
  • Nishino, Anna. “China’s Global Vaccine Gambit, Production, politics and propaganda: How Beijing has shaped the international COVID immunization drive.” Nikkei Asia. October 12, 2021. accessed date June 5, 2023. https:// asia.nikkei.com/static/vdata/chinavaccine-1/.
  • Pape, Robert A. “Soft Balancing against the United States.” International Security 30, no. 1 (2005): 7–45.
  • Park, Jae Jeok. “The US-Led Alliances in the Asia-Pacific: Hedge against Potential Threats or an Undesirable Multilateral Security Order?” The Pacific Review 24, no. 2 (2011): 137–158.
  • Park, Jin. “Korea between the United States and China: How Does Hedging Work?” In Light or Heavy Hedging: Positioning between China and the United States, edited by Gilbert Rozman, 59-73. Washington: Korea Economic Institute of America, 2015.
  • Paul, T. V. “Introduction: The Enduring Axioms of Balance of Power Theory and Their Contemporary Relevance.” In Balance of Power: Theory and Practice in the 21st Century, edited by T. V. Paul, James J. Wirtz, and Michael Fortmann, 1-25. Standford: Stanford University Press, 2004.
  • Paul, T. V. “Soft Balancing in the Age of U.S. Primacy.” International Security 30, no. 1 (2005): 46–71.
  • “Plan of Action (2005-2010).” ASEAN. 2003. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://asean.org/?static_post=plan-of-action-to-implement-the-joint-declaration-on-asean-china-strategic-partnership-for-peace-and-prosperity
  • “Plan of Action (2016-2020).” ASEAN. 2015. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://www.asean.org/storage/ images/2015/November/27th-summit/ASEAN-China POA 2016-2020.pdf.
  • Roy, Denny. “Southeast Asia and China: Balancing or Bandwagoning?” Contemporary Southeast Asia 27, no. 2 (2005): 305–322.
  • Roy, Denny. “The ‘China Threat’ Issue: Major Arguments.” Asian Survey 36, no. 8 (1996): 758–771.
  • Shekhar, Vibhanshu. “ASEAN’s Response to the Rise of China: Deploying a Hedging Strategy.” China Report 48, no. 3 (2012): 253–268.
  • Sørensen, Camilla T. N. “Is China Becoming More Aggressive? ANeoclassical Realist Analysis.” Asian Perspective 37, no. 3 (2013): 363–386.
  • Stiles, Kendall W. Trust, and Hedging in International Relations. University of Michigan Press, 2018.
  • Strating, Rebecca. “Small Power Hedging in an Era of Great-Power Politics: Southeast Asian Responses to China’s Pursuit of Energy Security.” Asian Studies Review 44, no. 1 (January 2, 2020): 97–116.
  • Tessman, Brock F., and Wojtek Wolfe. “Great Powers and Strategic Hedging: The Case of Chinese Energy Security Strategy.” International Studies Review 13, no. 2 (2011): 214–240.
  • The World Bank. “World Bank Open Data.” The World Bank. n.d. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://data. worldbank.org/
  • The World Bank. “World Integrated Trade Solution.” The World Bank. n.d. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://wits.worldbank. org/
  • Tunsjø, Øystein. “China’s Rise: Towards a Division of Labor in Transatlantic Relations.” In Responding to China’s Rise: US and EU Strategies, edited by Vinod K. Aggarwal and Sara A. Newland 151–174. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015.
  • U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020. Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey, 2020. https://pubs. usgs.gov/publication/mcs2020
  • Weitz, Richard. “Meeting the China Challenge: Some Insights from Scenario-Based Planning.” Journal of Strategic Studies

Theorising the Hedging Strategy: National Interests, Objectives, and Mixed Foreign Policy Instruments

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 13 Sayı: 2, 193 – 214, 16.07.2024

Ivan Gonzalez Pujol

https://doi.org/10.20991/allazimuth.1480020

Öz

Hedging is a comprehensive foreign policy strategy that mixes competitive and cooperative approaches and is used to manage competing national interests during conditions of uncertainty over the future distribution of power. However, the literature is characterised by a lack of consensus on the central features of hedging, which leads to contradictions in how the concept of hedging is
applied. First, this paper assesses the definition of hedging, identifies three rival approaches, and links the risks and opportunities of hedging with uncertainty over the future international distribution of power. Second, it discusses how the various interpretations of hedging have inspired different analytical models. Finally, it explains hedging as a theoretically intermediate and analytically mixed strategy. These claims are supported by studying the Asia-Pacific region, where hedging has become the dominant strategy for coping with the uncertainty surrounding the future distribution of power stemming from the rise of China.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Hedging, Asia-Pacific, uncertainty, competition, China

Kaynakça

  • Asian Development Bank. “Asia Regional Integration Center: Free Trade Agreements.” Asia Regional Integration Center. n.d. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://aric.adb.org/database/fta
  • Bloomfield, Alan. “To Balance or to Bandwagon? Adjusting to China’s Rise during Australia’s Rudd–Gillard Era.” The Pacific Review 29, no. 2 (2016): 259–282.
  • Boon, Hoo Tiang. “The Hedging Prong in India’s Evolving China Strategy.” Journal of Contemporary China 25, no. 101 (2016): 792–804.
  • Boucher, Jean-Christophe. “The Cost of Bandwagoning: Canada-US Defence and Security Relations after 9/11.” International Journal: Canada’s Journal of Global Policy Analysis 67, no. 4 (2012): 895–914.
  • Chen, Ian Tsung-Yen, and Alan Hao Yang. “A Harmonized Southeast Asia? Explanatory Typologies of ASEAN Countries’ Strategies to the Rise of China.” The Pacific Review 26, no. 3 (July 1, 2013): 265–288.
  • “China COVID-19 Vaccine Tracker.” Bridge Beijing. October 11, 2021. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https:// bridgebeijing.com/our-publications/our-publications-1/china-covid-19-vaccines-tracker/.
  • Chung, Jae Ho. “East Asia Responds to the Rise of China: Patterns and Variations.” Pacific Affairs 82, no. 4 (2009): 657–675.
  • Ciorciari, John David. “The Balance of Great-Power Influence in Contemporary Southeast Asia.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 9, no. 1 (2009): 157–196.
  • Ciorciari, John David. The Limits of Alignment: Southeast Asia and the Great Powers since 1975. Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2010.
  • “COVID-19 Science Macro Report: Science Based Forecasts for the Short- and Long-Term.” Airfinity. September 24, 2021. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://www.airfinity.com/articles/airfinitys-covid-19-forecast-for-china-infections-and-deaths
  • Ferguson, Chaka. “Soft Power as the New Norm: How the Chinese-Russian Strategic Partnership (Soft) Balances American Hegemony in an Era of Unipolarity.” PhD dissertation, Florida International University, 2011.
  • Fiori, Antonio, and Andrea Passeri. “Hedging in Search of a New Age of Non-Alignment: Myanmar between China and the USA.” The Pacific Review 28, no. 5 (2015): 679–702.
  • García Cantalapiedra, David. “Spanish Foreign Policy, the United States and Soft Bandwagoning.” In Contemporary Spanish Foreign Policy, edited by David García Cantalapiedra and Ramon Pacheco Pardo, 82-105. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.
  • Gonzalez-Pujol, Ivan. “Teoría y Práctica de La Estrategia Hedging: Descifrando La Política Exterior Japonesa Ante La Incertidumbre Del Ascenso de China.” PhD. dissertation, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, 2019.
  • Goh, Evelyn. “Great Powers and Hierarchical Order in Southeast Asia: Analyzing Regional Security Strategies.” International Security 32, no. 3 (2008): 113–157.
  • Goh, Evelyn. Policy Studies 16: Meeting the China Challenge: The U.S. in Southeast Asian Regional Security Strategies. Washinton: East-West Center Washington, 2005.
  • Grigorescu, Alexandru. “East and Central European Countries and the Iraq War: The Choice between ‘Soft Balancing’ and ‘Soft Bandwagoning,’” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 41, no. 3 (2008): 281–299.
  • Haacke, Jürgen. “The Concept of Hedging and Its Application to Southeast Asia: A Critique and a Proposal for a Modified Conceptual and Methodological Framework.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 19, no. 3 (2019): 375–417.
  • He, Kai, and Huiyun Feng. “If Not Soft Balancing, Then What? Reconsidering Soft Balancing and U.S. Policy toward China.” Security Studies 17, no. 2 (2008): 363–395.
  • He, Kai. “Institutional Balancing and International Relations Theory: Economic Interdependence and Balance of Power Strategies in Southeast Asia.” European Journal of International Relations 14, no. 3 (2008): 489–518.
  • Hornung, Jeffrey W. “Japan’s Growing Hard Hedge against China.” Asian Security 10, no. 2 (2014): 97–122. Jackson, Van. “Power, Trust, and Network Complexity: Three Logics of Hedging in Asian Security.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 14, no. 3 (2014): 331–356.
  • Jaffrey, Sana. “How the Global Vaccine Divide Is Fueling Indonesia’s Coronavirus Catastrophe.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. August 5, 2021. Accessed October 14, 2021, https://carnegieendowment. org/2021/08/05/how-global-vaccine-divide-is-fueling-indonesia-s-coronavirus-catastrophe-pub-85107
  • Jerdén, Björn, and Linus Hagström. “Rethinking Japan’s China Policy: Japan as an Accommodator in the Rise of China, 1978-2011.” Journal of East Asian Studies 12, no. 2 (2012): 215–250.
  • Johnston, Alastair Iain, and Robert S. Ross, eds. Engaging China: The Management of an Emerging Power. Abingdon: Routledge, 1999.
  • Keating, Vincent Charles, and Jan Ruzicka. “Trusting Relationships in International Politics: No Need to Hedge.” Review of International Studies 40, no. 4 (October 2014): 753–770.
  • Kikuchi, Tomoo, Kensuke Yanagida, and Huong Vo. “The Effects of Mega-Regional Trade Agreements on Vietnam.” Journal of Asian Economics 55 (2018): 4–19.
  • Koga, Kei. “The Concept of ‘Hedging’Revisited: The Case of Japan’s Foreign Policy Strategy in East Asia’s Power Shift.” International Studies Review 20, no. 4 (2017): 633–660.
  • Korolev, Alexander. “Systemic Balancing and Regional Hedging: China–Russia Relations.” The Chinese Journal of International Politics 9, no. 4 (2016): 375–397.
  • Kuik, Cheng-Chwee. “‘Smaller States’ Alignment Choices: A Comparative Study of Malaysia and Singapore’s Hedging Behavior in the Face of a Rising China.” PhD dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 2010.
  • Kuik, Cheng-Chwee. “How Do Weaker States Hedge? Unpacking ASEAN States’Alignment Behavior towards China.” Journal of Contemporary China 25, no. 100 (2016): 500–514.
  • Kuik, Cheng-Chwee. “The Essence of Hedging: Malaysia and Singapore’s Response to a Rising China.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 30, no. 2 (2008): 159–185.
  • Kuik, Cheng-Chwee. “Variations on a (Hedging) Theme: Comparing ASEAN Core States’Alignment Behavior.” In Light or Heavy Hedging: Positioning between China and the United States, edited by Gilbert Rozman, 11-26. Washington: Korea Economic Institute of America, 2015.
  • Kuik, Cheng-Chwee, and Gilbert Rozman. “Introduction.” In Light or Heavy Hedging: Positioning between China and the United States, edited by Gilbert Rozman, 1-9. Washington: Korea Economic Institute of America, 2015.
  • Le, Hong Hiep. “Vietnam’s Hedging Strategy against China since Normalization.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 35, no. 3 (2013): 333–368.
  • Lee, Ji Yun Lee. “Hedging Strategies of the Middle Powers in East Asian Security: The Cases of South Korea and Malaysia.” East Asia 34, no. 1 (2017): 23–37.
  • Lim, Darren J., and Rohan Mukherjee. “Hedging in South Asia: Balancing Economic and Security Interests amid Sino-Indian Competition.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 19, no. 3 (2019): 493–522.
  • Lim, Darren J., and Zack Cooper. “Reassessing Hedging: The Logic of Alignment in East Asia.” Security Studies 24, no. 4 (2015): 696–727.
  • López i Vidal, Lluc, and Àngels Pelegrín. “Hedging against China: Japanese Strategy towards a Rising Power.” Asian Security 14, no. 2 (2018): 193–211.
  • López i Vidal, Lluc, and Àngels Pelegrín. “Cambio y Continuidad En La Política Exterior y de Seguridad de Japón (1989-2009): La Transformación de La Doctrina Yoshida y La Adopción de Una Estrategia Hedging Ante El Ascenso de China.” PhD dissertation, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 2011.
  • Mahadevan, Renuka, and Anda Nugroho. “Can the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership Minimise the Harm from the United States–China Trade War?” The World Economy 42, no. 11 (2019): 3148–3167.
  • Massie, Justin. “Toward Greater Opportunism: Balancing and Bandwagoning in Canada-US Relations.” In Game Changer: The Impact of 9/11 on North American Security, edited by Jonathan Paquin and Patrick James, 49-64. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2014.
  • Matsuda, Yasuhiro. “Engagement and Hedging: Japan’s Strategy toward China.” The SAIS Review of International Affairs 32, no. 2 (2012): 109–119.
  • McDonough, David S. “Getting It Just Right: Strategic Culture, Cybernetics, and Canada’s Goldilocks Grand Strategy.” Comparative Strategy 32, no. 3 (2013): 224–244.
  • Medeiros, Evan S. “Strategic Hedging and the Future of Asia‐Pacific Stability.” The Washington Quarterly 29, no. 1 (2005): 145–167.
  • Medeiros, Evan S. China’s International Behavior: Activism, Opportunism, and Diversification. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2009.
  • Michishita, Narushige, and Richard J. Samuels. “Hugging and Hedging: Japanese Grand Strategy in the Twenty-First Century.” In Worldviews of Aspiring Powers: Domestic Foreign Policy Debates in China, India, Iran, Japan and Russia, edited by Henry R. Nau and Deepa M. Ollapally, 167-203. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  • MINDEF Singapore. “ASEAN and China Successfully Conclude ASEAN-China Maritime Exercise.” MINDEF Singapore. October 27, 2018. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://www.mindef.gov.sg/web/portal/mindef/news-and-events/latest-releases/article-detail/2018/october/27oct18_nr.
  • National Security Council and Cabinet of Japan. “Medium Term Defense Program (FY2014-2018).” National Security Council and Cabinet of Japan. December 17, 2013. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://www.mod. go.jp/j/approach/agenda/guideline/2014/pdf/Defense_Program.pdf.
  • National Security Council and Cabinet of Japan. “National Defense Program Guidelines for FY 2014 and Beyond.” National Security Council and Cabinet of Japan. 2013. Accessed date June 5, 2023. http://www.mod.go.jp/j/approach/agenda/guideline/2014/ pdf/20131217_e2.pdf
  • Nishino, Anna. “China’s Global Vaccine Gambit, Production, politics and propaganda: How Beijing has shaped the international COVID immunization drive.” Nikkei Asia. October 12, 2021. accessed date June 5, 2023. https:// asia.nikkei.com/static/vdata/chinavaccine-1/.
  • Pape, Robert A. “Soft Balancing against the United States.” International Security 30, no. 1 (2005): 7–45.
  • Park, Jae Jeok. “The US-Led Alliances in the Asia-Pacific: Hedge against Potential Threats or an Undesirable Multilateral Security Order?” The Pacific Review 24, no. 2 (2011): 137–158.
  • Park, Jin. “Korea between the United States and China: How Does Hedging Work?” In Light or Heavy Hedging: Positioning between China and the United States, edited by Gilbert Rozman, 59-73. Washington: Korea Economic Institute of America, 2015.
  • Paul, T. V. “Introduction: The Enduring Axioms of Balance of Power Theory and Their Contemporary Relevance.” In Balance of Power: Theory and Practice in the 21st Century, edited by T. V. Paul, James J. Wirtz, and Michael Fortmann, 1-25. Standford: Stanford University Press, 2004.
  • Paul, T. V. “Soft Balancing in the Age of U.S. Primacy.” International Security 30, no. 1 (2005): 46–71.
  • “Plan of Action (2005-2010).” ASEAN. 2003. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://asean.org/?static_post=plan-of-action-to-implement-the-joint-declaration-on-asean-china-strategic-partnership-for-peace-and-prosperity
  • “Plan of Action (2016-2020).” ASEAN. 2015. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://www.asean.org/storage/ images/2015/November/27th-summit/ASEAN-China POA 2016-2020.pdf.
  • Roy, Denny. “Southeast Asia and China: Balancing or Bandwagoning?” Contemporary Southeast Asia 27, no. 2 (2005): 305–322.
  • Roy, Denny. “The ‘China Threat’ Issue: Major Arguments.” Asian Survey 36, no. 8 (1996): 758–771.
  • Shekhar, Vibhanshu. “ASEAN’s Response to the Rise of China: Deploying a Hedging Strategy.” China Report 48, no. 3 (2012): 253–268.
  • Sørensen, Camilla T. N. “Is China Becoming More Aggressive? ANeoclassical Realist Analysis.” Asian Perspective 37, no. 3 (2013): 363–386.
  • Stiles, Kendall W. Trust, and Hedging in International Relations. University of Michigan Press, 2018.
  • Strating, Rebecca. “Small Power Hedging in an Era of Great-Power Politics: Southeast Asian Responses to China’s Pursuit of Energy Security.” Asian Studies Review 44, no. 1 (January 2, 2020): 97–116.
  • Tessman, Brock F., and Wojtek Wolfe. “Great Powers and Strategic Hedging: The Case of Chinese Energy Security Strategy.” International Studies Review 13, no. 2 (2011): 214–240.
  • The World Bank. “World Bank Open Data.” The World Bank. n.d. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://data. worldbank.org/
  • The World Bank. “World Integrated Trade Solution.” The World Bank. n.d. Accessed date June 5, 2023. https://wits.worldbank. org/
  • Tunsjø, Øystein. “China’s Rise: Towards a Division of Labor in Transatlantic Relations.” In Responding to China’s Rise: US and EU Strategies, edited by Vinod K. Aggarwal and Sara A. Newland 151–174. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015.
  • U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020. Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey, 2020. https://pubs. usgs.gov/publication/mcs2020
  • Weitz, Richard. “Meeting the China Challenge: Some Insights from Scenario-Based Planning.” Journal of Strategic Studies

Toplam 69 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Uluslararası İlişkiler (Diğer)
BölümMakaleler
Yazarlar

Ivan Gonzalez Pujol Universidad Autónoma de Madrid 0000-0001-6465-508X Spain

Yayımlanma Tarihi16 Temmuz 2024
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2024 Cilt: 13 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

ChicagoGonzalez Pujol, Ivan. “Theorising the Hedging Strategy: National Interests, Objectives, and Mixed Foreign Policy Instruments”. All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace 13, sy. 2 (Temmuz 2024): 193-214. https://doi.org/10.20991/allazimuth.1480020.

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