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TOLUNOĞULLARI Skip to content Mısır ve Suriye’de hüküm süren bir Türk-İslâm hânedanı (868-905).
Hânedanın kurucusu Ahmed b. Tolun’un Buhara asıllı bir Türk olan babası Tolun, Halife Me’mûn döneminin önemli kumandanlarındandı. Babasının vefatından (240/854) iki yıl sonra Bizans’a karşı düzenlenen seferlerin merkezi Tarsus’a giden Ahmed b. Tolun, muhtemelen Müstaîn-Billâh’ın halifeliğinin ilk yılında (248/862) Sâmerrâ’ya döndü ve onun güvenini kazanarak saraydaki nüfuzlu kişiler arasında yer aldı. Ardından Mısır Valisi Bayık Bey’in vekili sıfatıyla Mısır’a girdi, bu vesileyle hânedanın temellerini attı (254/868). Dımaşk’taki isyanı bastırmak amacıyla topladığı ordusundaki asker sayısının 100.000’in üstüne çıkması üzerine askerî birlikleri için Sâmerrâ benzeri bir şehir kurarak hükümet merkezini oraya nakletmeye karar verdi. Fustat’ın kuzeydoğusunda Yeşkür dağının eteğinde Katâi semtini tesis etti ve idare merkezini orada yaptırdığı saraya taşıdı (256/870).
Kayınpederi Yârcûh et-Türkî’nin ölümünden (Ramazan 258 / Temmuz 872) sonra bütün Mısır Ahmed’in eline geçti. Bu sırada Abbâsî halifeliği, Ahmed b. Tolun’dan malî ve askerî destek istedi. Hilâfet nâibi Muvaffak-Billâh beklediği yardımı alamayınca onun üzerine bir ordu gönderdi. Rakka’ya kadar gelen ordu, on ay burada bekledikten sonra geri döndü. Bu olay Ahmed b. Tolun’un siyasî hayatında bir dönüm noktası teşkil etti; bu tarihten itibaren (877) ismen halifeye bağlı müstakil bir hükümdar gibi hareket etmeye başladı. Halifeliğin içinde bulunduğu durumdan yararlanıp Suriye’yi de egemenliği altına almak için harekete geçti. Suriye seferi sonunda Fırat’ın batısındaki bütün vilâyetlere hâkim oldu; batıda Berka ve Trablusgarp’tan doğuda Fırat nehrine kadar olan topraklar Tolunoğulları’nın idaresine girdi. Suudi Arabistan’ın güneybatısında yer alan Asîr ve civarı da onun egemenliğini tanıdı. Ahmed b. Tolun, 266 (879-80) yılında Ahmedî veya Tolûnî dinarı denilen sikkeler darbettirerek sikkeye halifenin adıyla birlikte kendi adını da yazdırdı. Ahmed b. Tolun’un Suriye ve Filistin’i zaptetmesi ve hemen ardından kendi adına para bastırması Muvaffak-Billâh’ı harekete geçirdi ve onu Mısır valiliğinden azletti. Bunun üzerine Ahmed b. Tolun hilâfet makamıyla irtibatını kesip bağımsızlığını ilân etti. Onun zamanında Abbâsî halifesinin, isminin hutbelerde okunmasından ve Bağdat’a bir miktar vergi gönderilmesinden başka bir nüfuz belirtisi kalmadı.
270’te (884) vefat eden Ahmed b. Tolun’un yerine oğlu Humâreveyh geçti. Babasından istikrarlı, zengin bir ülke devralan Humâreveyh, kendisine itaat hususunda tereddüt gösteren ağabeyi Abbas’ı isyana başvurabileceği endişesiyle öldürttü. Öte yandan Tolunoğulları’nın başına tecrübesiz birinin geçmesi Muvaffak-Billâh’ı ümitlendirdi ve Suriye’yi almak için ordular göndermeye başladı. Suriye’yi kaybettiği takdirde Mısır üzerindeki hâkimiyetinin sarsılacağını bilen Humâreveyh de Suriye’ye ordular yolladı. Bu arada Abbâsî kumandanlarından Muhammed b. Ebü’s-Sâc’ın Humâreveyh’e katılmasıyla el-Cezîre ve Musul’a kadar olan toprakların tamamı Humâreveyh’in eline geçti; Humâreveyh’in gücünü arttırması Abbâsîler’i ona yaklaşmak zorunda bıraktı. 273 yılının Receb ayında (Aralık 886) iki taraf arasında Tolunoğulları’nın Mısır’daki hükümranlığının tanınması, ayrıca Suriye, Filistin, Sugūr, Anadolu ve İrmîniye bölgeleriyle el-Cezîre’nin otuz yıl süreyle onların idaresine verilmesi hususunda bir antlaşma yapıldı. Bizans’la mücadeleye başlayan Humâreveyh özellikle 280 (893) yılından itibaren Bizans üzerine ordular gönderdi; bu mücadele 283’te (896) imzalanan bir barış antlaşmasıyla sona erdi. Halife Mu‘tazıd-Billâh, 14 Haziran 893’te Mısır’a yolladığı fermanla Fırat’tan Berka’ya kadar uzanan toprakları Humâreveyh’e verdiğini bildirdi. Zamanla idareyi Vezir Ebü’l-Hasan Ali b. Ahmed el-Mâzerâî’nin eline bırakan Humâreveyh, Dımaşk’ta bulunduğu sırada hizmetçileri tarafından geceleyin uyurken öldürüldü (282/896). Ardından toplanan devlet adamları büyük oğlu Ceyş’e biat ettiler. Humâreveyh’in on iki yıl süren hükümdarlığında Tolunoğulları en parlak dönemini yaşadı. Ancak onun aşırı harcamaları yüzünden hazine boşalmış, ülke âdeta içeriden çökmüştü. Bu sebeple kendisinden sonra gelenler ülkeyi maddî sıkıntılardan ve kısa süre içinde yıkılmaktan kurtaramadılar.
Humâreveyh’ten sonra kumandanlar arasında çıkan rekabet yüzünden ordu bölündü, hânedan mensupları birbirine düştü ve saltanat mücadelesi başladı. Yetkileri ellerine geçiren kumandanlar, Ahmed b. Tolun’un oğulları hayatta iken Humâreveyh’in henüz on dört yaşındaki oğlu Ebü’l-Asâkir Ceyş’i tahta çıkardıklarından ülkede önemli karışıklıklar meydana geldi ve Tolunoğulları yıkılış sürecine girdi, isyan ve karışıklıklar birbirini izledi. Genç sultan kumandanların tahrikiyle amcalarını tutuklattı; kendini içki, oyun ve eğlenceye verdi. İçki meclislerinde bazı kumandanlara karşı ağır hakaretlerde bulundu ve onları azledeceğini söyledi. Sultanı öldürmek için harekete geçen bazı kumandanlar suikast planlarının önceden öğrenilmesi üzerine kaçmak zorunda kaldılar. Altmış kişi civarında olan bu kumandanlar Mu‘tazıd-Billâh’ın davetiyle Bağdat’a gitti ve her birine hil‘at giydirildi. Bu arada Suriye Valisi Tuğç b. Cüf bağımsızlığını ilân etti. Suriye’de kalan muhalif kumandanlar da isyan çıkardı. İsyancıların niyeti Ceyş’in amcalarını hapisten çıkarıp birini sultan ilân etmekti. Ancak Ceyş, tahta geçirmek istedikleri amcası Nasr’ı (veya Mudar) öldürüp cesedini onların önüne attı. Bunun üzerine âsiler saraya girerek Ceyş’i tahttan indirip tutukladılar ve birkaç gün sonra öldürdüler (283/896). İsyan sırasında sarayı talan edip yaktılar. Ceyş’in saltanatı altı ay sürdü.
Ceyş’in yerine on dört yaşındaki kardeşi Ebû Mûsâ Hârûn tahta çıkarıldı. Onun zamanında da kumandanlar arasındaki mücadele devam etti. Bu sırada muhalif kumandanların başa geçmesi için İskenderiye’den çağırdıkları sultanın amcası Rebîa b. Ahmed ortadan kaldırıldı (284/897). Diğer taraftan Halife Mu‘tazıd-Billâh’ın Hârûn’un saltanatını 286 (899) yılına kadar onaylamaması yüzünden işler daha da kötüleşti. Mu‘tazıd’ın Tarsus yönetimine müdahale ederek oraya bir vali tayin etmesiyle Sugūr bölgesi fiilen elden çıktı. Suriye’de de Karmatîler isyan etti ve Hama, Humus, Maarretünnu‘mân ile Ba‘lebek’i ele geçirdi. Üzerlerine gönderilen birlikler yenilerek geri çekildi (290/903). Ardından halife Mısır’ı onlardan almaya karar verdi ve Türk asıllı kumandan Muhammed b. Süleyman’ı Suriye ve Mısır’a gönderdi. Kuvvetlerin Mısır’a girişini engellemek için ordusuyla Suriye’ye doğru yola çıkan Hârûn b. Humâreveyh, ülkesinin doğu sınırında Abbâse’de savunma hazırlığı yapıldığı sırada askerler (veya iki amcası) tarafından öldürüldü (Safer 292 / Aralık 904).
Tolunoğulları’nın başına Hârûn’un amcası Şeybân b. Ahmed b. Tolun geçirildi. Ancak Şeybân’a güvenmeyen ve artık mücadele etmenin gereksiz olduğunu düşünen kumandanlardan Tuğç b. Cüf ile diğer bazı kumandan ve önde gelen kişiler halifeye bir mektup yazarak Hârûn’un öldürüldüğünü ve kendilerine eman verilmesi şartıyla hilâfet ordusuna katılmak istediklerini bildirdiler. Onların, birlikleriyle beraber Abbâsî ordusuna katılmasıyla Şeybân zor durumda kaldı. Yanındaki az sayıda askerle birlikte Fustat kapısında karargâh kurup zayıf bir direnme gösterdiyse de askerlerinin önemli bir kısmının karşı tarafa geçmesi üzerine başşehri kuşatan Muhammed b. Süleyman’dan eman istedi ve geceleyin gidip teslim oldu (Rebîülevvel 292 / Ocak 905). Ertesi gün Abbâsî ordusu Fustat’a girdi. Meydanın etrafındaki Sudanlı askerlere ait kışlalar yakıldı, kışlalardaki pek çok askerle şehir halkından çok sayıda insan öldürüldü. Böylece Mısır yeniden Abbâsî hâkimiyetine girdi. Sultanlık koltuğunda sadece dokuz gün oturabilen Şeybân’ın, ailesi ve yakınlarıyla birlikte Bağdat’a gönderilmesiyle İslâm döneminde Mısır’da ilk müstakil hânedan olan Tolunoğulları yıkılmış oldu.
Türk-İslâm tarihi ve medeniyeti açısından önemli bir yere sahip bulunan Tolunoğulları müstakil bir devlet olmakla birlikte Abbâsîler’e bağlılıklarını şeklen sürdürdüler; idarî, siyasî, askerî ve adlî teşkilât bakımından önceki kurumları devam ettirdiler. İdarede hânedan mensupları önemli bir yer tutarken görevlere daha ziyade Türk asıllı kişiler getiriliyordu. Tolunoğulları büyük bir kara ordusuna ve güçlü bir donanmaya sahipti. Ahmed b. Tolun Türkler, Sudanlılar, zenciler, Araplar’dan oluşan ve mevcudu 100.000’i aşan bir ordu kurmuştu. Komuta kademesinde Türk kumandanlarının bulunduğu bu ordu başşehir Katâi’in yanı sıra Berka, İskenderiye, Dımaşk, Halep ve Tarsus gibi garnizon şehirlerinde üslenmişti. Ahmed b. Tolun sahilleri korumak için güçlü bir donanma kurmaya çalışmış, bugün de ayakta olan Akkâ Kalesi’ni ve Akkâ Limanı’nı inşa ettirmiş, Yafa ve İskenderiye’de hisarlar yaptırmıştır. Tolunoğulları’nın Ravza adası, Akkâ, Dimyat ve İskenderiye’de bulunan tersanelerinde binlerle ifade edilen savaş ve ticaret gemileri inşa edilmişti.
Ahmed b. Tolun ve Humâreveyh zamanında Mısır, tarihinin en parlak devirlerinden birini yaşamış, bu devir refah, imar, ilim ve irfan devri olmuştur. Her ikisi de âlim ve edipleri korur, mimari ve kültürel faaliyetleri teşvik ederdi. Dönemin en meşhur şairi Hüseyin b. Abdüsselâm, dil âlimi Muhammed b. Abdullah b. Muhammed b. Müslim ile şair Kāsım b. Yahyâ el-Meryemî, Humâreveyh’in ihsan ve himayesine mazhar olmuştur. Bu devirde ilim ve edebiyat alanında da çalışmalar yapılmıştır. İmam Şâfiî’nin talebesi Rebî‘ b. Süleyman el-Murâdî, Hanefî fakihleri Kadı Bekkâr b. Kuteybe, talebesi Ebû Ca‘fer et-Tahâvî, dil âlimleri Velîd b. Muhammed et-Temîmî ve Ahmed b. Ca‘fer ed-Dîneverî, matematikçi İbnü’d-Dâye Ahmed b. Yûsuf, göz hastalıklarına dair eser yazan Ebû Ali Halef et-Tûlûnî dönemin önde gelen âlimlerindendir.
Tolunoğulları devrinde Mısır’da ekonomi canlanmış, ziraat önemli ölçüde gelişmiş ve ülkede refah yaygınlaşmış, sulama işlerine önem veren Ahmed b. Tolun ekilebilir arazileri çoğaltmış, yeni su kanalları açtırmıştır. Nil üzerindeki mikyasları ıslah ettirmiş, köprüler yaptırmıştır. Ziraatın yanı sıra dokumacılık başta olmak üzere el sanatları gelişmiş, hükümet tarafından “dârüttırâz” olarak adlandırılan, kaliteli kumaşların dokunduğu bir dokuma evi açılmıştır. Sabun, şeker ve savaş aletleri üretiminde, iç ve dış ticaret alanında önemli ilerleme sağlanmıştır. Kendi adını taşıyan caminin bir tarafına çarşı inşa ettiren Ahmed b. Tolun, Mısır’ın doğu-batı ticaret yolları üzerinde bulunmasını dikkate alarak taşıma amaçlı pek çok gemi ve kayık yaptırmıştır. Tolunoğulları zamanında Asvan bölgenin önemli bir ticaret merkezi haline gelmiş, Arap kabilelerinin bölgeye göçü veya tehciri devam etmiştir. Tolunoğulları’nın altın sikkeleri Râfika, Mısır, Halep, Humus, Tânis ve Dımaşk’taki darphânelerde basılıyordu.
Ahmed b. Tolun’un Katâi semtinde yaptırdığı cami Tolunoğulları’nın mimari alanda ulaştığı üstün seviyeyi göstermektedir. Cebelyeşkür adlı tepe üzerinde inşa edilen yapı günümüzde Mısır’da esas biçimini koruyan en eski camidir. Sâmerrâ Camii’nin minaresine benzeyen, alt tarafı dört köşe, üstü yuvarlak, dıştan rampalı helezonik minaresiyle meşhurdur (bk. İBN TOLUN CAMİİ ). Ahmed b. Tolun camide görev yapmak üzere bir doktor görevlendirmiş, cemaatten hastalananların tedavisinde kullanılacak ilâçların bulunduğu bir eczahane kurmuştur. Sultan sarayının yanında dârü’l-imâre, kumandanların evleri, kışlalar ve asker tâlimi için bir meydan yer alıyordu. Hükümdar ayrıca bütün hastaların ücretsiz tedavisi için bir hastahane (bîmâristan) inşa ettirmiştir. Humâreveyh insan kabartmalarıyla süslü, duvarları altın yapraklarla bezeli, Dârüzzeheb adını taşıyan bir saray yaptırmıştır. Avlusunda cıva dolu bir havuzun bulunduğu sarayın bahçesi hoş kokulu çiçekleri, nâdide ağaçları ve hayvanat bahçesiyle tanınıyordu. Bu dönemde hat sanatı da yüksek seviyeye ulaşmıştır. Abdullah b. Muhammed el-Belevî Sîretü Aḥmed b. Ṭolûn adıyla bir eser yazmış, eserinde Ahmed b. Tolun’un yanı sıra oğlu Abbas, gulâmlar, III. (IX.) yüzyılda Mısır ve civarında cereyan eden olaylar ve Abbâsî halifeliği hakkında bilgi vermiştir.
TOLUNOĞULLARI HÜKÜMDARLARI Ahmed b. Tolun 254 (868) Humâreveyh 270 (884) Ceyş b. Humâreveyh 282 (896) Hârûn b. Humâreveyh 283 (896) Şeybân b. Ahmed b. Tolun 292 (905)
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2012 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 41. cildinde, 233-236 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır. Bu madde en son 14.05.2019 tarihinde güncellenmiştir.