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TOYNBEE, Arnold J. Skip to content TOYNBEE, Arnold J. (1889-1975) İngiliz tarihçi ve tarih felsefecisi.
Müellif: Enes Kabakcı
14 Nisan 1889’da Londra’da doğdu. Ünlü İngiliz iktisat tarihçisi Arnold Toynbee’nin yeğenidir. Annesi İngiltere’de üniversite diplomasına sahip ilk kadınlardandır. İngiltere’nin köklü eğitim kurumları Winchester College (Hampshire) ve Balliol College’da (Oxford) Yunan ve Latin klasiklerine dayanan bir eğitim aldı. 1911-1912 yıllarında Atina’da British Archeological School’da öğrenim gördükten sonra üç yıl Balliol College’da ders verdi. Yunanistan hükümetinin maddî desteğiyle Londra Üniversitesi’ne bağlı King’s College London bünyesinde açılan Korais Kürsüsü’nde Bizans ve modern Yunan dili, edebiyatı ve tarihi kurucu profesörü olarak görev yaptı (1919-1924). Aynı üniversitede milletlerarası tarih profesörlüğü görevinde bulundu (1925-1955), emekli olduktan sonra da ders vermeye devam etti. 1925-1955 yılları arasında Londra’da Kraliyet Milletlerarası İlişkiler Enstitüsü’nde (The Royal Institute of International Affairs / Chatam House) araştırma müdürlüğü görevi yaptı. A Study of History adlı on iki ciltlik temel eserinin ilk on cildini bu görevi sırasında yayımladı.
Arnold J. Toynbee I. Dünya Savaşı yıllarında İngiliz Dışişleri Bakanlığı’na bağlı Savaş ve Propaganda Bürosu’nda çalıştı. Bu görevi kapsamında Lord James Bryce ile birlikte “Mavi Kitap” adıyla da bilinen The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915-1916 (London 1916) adlı propaganda amaçlı derlemeyi hazırladı (trc. Ahmet Güner – Attila Tuygan – Jülide Değirmenciler, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Ermenilere Yönelik Muamele, 1915-1916 , İstanbul 2005). Ayrıca Savaş ve Propaganda Bürosu’nun her yıl çıkardığı Survey of International Affairs ’in editörlüğünü yaptı (1925-1946).
1919 ve 1946 Paris Barış konferanslarında İngiliz delegasyonunda görev aldı. 1943-1946 yıllarında İngiliz Dışişleri Bakanlığı Araştırma Bölümü’nde araştırma müdürlüğü yaptı. Manchester Guardian gazetesinin muhabiri sıfatıyla 1921’de Anadolu’ya gidip Türk-Yunan savaşını izledi. Burada geçirdiği dokuz aylık süreçte daha önce Yunanistan’a duyduğu sempati zamanla yerini Yunan hükümetine karşı sert eleştirilere bıraktı. Gazetede Yunan ordularının tutumunu kınayan yazılar yayımlayarak İngiliz kamuoyuna işgalci Yunan ordusunun Anadolu’da halka uyguladığı vahşeti anlattı. İngiltere dönüşü, Yunanistan’ın yenilgiye uğramasının hemen öncesinde yayımlanan The Western Question in Greece and Turkey. A Study in the Contact of Civilisations adlı kitabını (London 1922; trc. Kadri Mustafa Orağlı, Türkiye’de ve Yunanistan’da Batı Meselesi. Medeniyetlerin Temas Noktasında Bir Çalışma , İstanbul 2007) hazırlamaya koyuldu. Yunanistan’a karşı takındığı eleştirel tavır, Korais Kürsüsü’nü maddî bakımdan destekleyen Yunan hükümetinin ve kürsünün diğer bağışçılarının tepkisini çekince 1924’te bu kürsüdeki görevinden ayrılmak zorunda kaldı. Oxford, Cambridge, Birmingham, Birmingham (Alabama), Princeton, New Jersey, Columbia ve New York üniversitelerinden fahrî doktora unvanı aldı, Fransa Enstitüsü üyeliğine seçildi. 1937’de British Academy’de öğretim üyesi olarak bulundu. 22 Ekim 1975’te öldü.
Toynbee’nin uzun akademik hayatının seyrinde iki dünya savaşı belirleyici rol oynamıştır. I. Dünya Savaşı sırasında medeniyet kavramının, II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında dinî inançların önemini keşfetmiş ve bu iki tema ekseninde birçok eser vermiştir. 1914 sonrası dönemde Batı medeniyetinin tehdit altında bulunduğu tesbitini yapan Toynbee kendine niçin bazı medeniyetler gelişirken diğerlerinin çöktüğü sorusunu sorar. Onun zihninde bu soru 1920’de, Alman filozofu Oswald Spengler’in Der Untergang des Abendlandes adlı eserini (Münih 1920-1922) okumasıyla belirir. Kültürlerin de dört mevsimi bulunduğunu söyleyen Spengler’den etkilenen Toynbee, XIX. yüzyıla damgasını vuran ilerlemeci tarih anlayışına karşı döngüsel tarih anlayışını savunur. Fakat medeniyetlerin kaderlerinin yıkılmak olduğu şeklindeki determinist anlayışına karşı çıkarak Spengler’in “medeniyetler insanlar veya yaşayan başka organizmalar gibi çocukluk, gençlik, olgunluk ve yaşlılık süreçlerinden geçer” şeklinde ifade ettiği organizmacı yaklaşımını reddeder. Toynbee, II. Dünya Savaşı’ndan sonra dinî bakış açısıyla tarihin ilâhî bir gerçeklik tarafından biçimlendirildiği tezini savunur. Ona göre tarih Tanrı’nın kendisini içtenlikle izleyenlere açan hareket halindeki görünümüdür. Netice itibariyle Toynbee’nin tarih görüşü Anglikan dindarlığı ile Spengler’in sisteminin sentezinden meydana gelmektedir.
Yeryüzünde bugüne kadar ortaya çıkan otuzun üzerinde medeniyet sayan Toynbee’nin geliştirdiği medeniyet teorisine göre bir medeniyet meydan okuma ve karşılık verme mekanizması sayesinde doğar ve gelişir. Toplumların mâruz kaldığı meydan okuma coğrafî, iklimsel, askerî veya politik olabilir. Bir meydan okumanın eyleme yol açabilmesi için ne çok sert ne de çok zayıf olması gerekir. Etkili bir meydan okuma insanı yaratıcılığa teşvik eder, fakat mevcut uyumu da bozar. Dolayısıyla başta kötülük şeklinde görülebilir. Bir toplum meydan okumalarla karşılaşınca yaratıcı azınlığı ile bunlara başarılı cevaplar vererek kendi ihtiyaçlarını giderir. Her zaman hareket halinde bulunan toplum böylece medeniyet aşamasına ulaşır.
Arnold J. Toynbee’nin el yazısı ve imzası (Abdullah Uçman koleksiyonu) Toynbee medeniyet diye adlandırılan gelişmenin teknolojide, bilimde ve gücün kişisel olmayan biçimde kullanılışındaki gelişmeyle meydana geldiğini, dürüstlükle ve ahlâkî gelişmeyle ilişkisi bulunmadığını ileri sürer. Ayrıca ona göre bir medeniyetin büyümesinde toplumun coğrafî genişlemesi kesin bir ölçü değildir. Medeniyetin büyümesi yalnızca teknolojik ilerlemeden ve toplumun fizikî çevre üzerinde gitgide artan egemenliğinden de ileri gelmemektedir. Çünkü teknik ilerlediği halde duraklamış toplumlar bulunmaktadır. Medeniyet, içinde bütün insanlığın herkesi kapsayan tek bir ailenin üyeleri gibi tam bir uyum halinde yaşayabileceği bir toplum durumu teşkil etme çabasıdır. Bu süreçte dinin hayatî bir önemi vardır. Bir medeniyetin varlığını sürdürebilmesi dinle ilişkisinin zayıflamamasına bağlıdır. Toynbee insanların din diye inandıkları şeylerin hayal değil gerçek olduğu kanısındadır. Onun ifadesiyle yüksek/evrensel dinlerin ortaya çıkışı insanlık tarihinde öyle önemli hadiselerdir ki medeniyetlerin çöküşü ya da yükselişiyle doğdukları söylenemez. Evrensel dinler, ölen medeniyetler üzerine konan asalaklar değildir ve yeni uygarlıklara beşik de olmamıştır. Yüksek dinlerin çoğu, kendilerine beşik olan uygarlıkların sınırlayıcı kalıplarından kurtulma başarısını göstermiştir.
Civilization on Trial adlı eserinde Toynbee, Batı medeniyetinin Greko-Romen medeniyetin temsilcisi sayıldığını ifade etse de Batı medeniyetini sadece Helen medeniyetinin bir sonucu diye görmenin yanlışlığını vurgular. Zira Batı medeniyetinin Hıristiyanlık aracılığıyla Helen medeniyeti kadar Suriye medeniyetiyle de ilişkisi vardır. Bu sebeple Hıristiyanlık günümüz Batı medeniyetiyle Helen medeniyeti arasında bir köprüdür. Batı medeniyeti tarihinde biri dış, diğeri iç kaynaklı iki büyük değişim yaşanmıştır. Devrim niteliğindeki bu değişimlerden birincisi Batı’nın Hıristiyanlığı kabul etmesiyle ortaya çıkmış ve kültürel bir kesintiye yol açmıştır. Hıristiyanlığın yerini üç yeni “din”e bırakmasıyla meydana gelen ikinci değişimde ise dış etkinin bir rolü yoktur. Toynbee’ye göre Hıristiyanlığın yerini alan Batı kaynaklı bu inançlar bilim, milliyetçilik ve komünizmdir. Dünyada Batılı kurumların, düşüncelerin ve ideallerin yayılması, Batılı olmayan halkların kendi din ve felsefî geleneklerine (Rusya’da Hıristiyanlığın Doğu Ortodoks mezhebi, Çin’de Konfüçyüsçülük, Türkiye’de İslâmiyet gibi) bağlılıklarının azalmasına yol açmıştır.
Toynbee insanlık tarihine iki farklı gözle bakar. Aldığı klasik eğitim ve hazırlanması yıllar süren A Study of History adlı eseri geçmişe olan derin ilgisinin göstergesidir. Royal Institute of International Affairs’de çalıştığı yıllarda uluslararası ilişkiler hakkında yazdığı raporlar ise yaşadığı zamanla kurduğu sıkı bağı ortaya koyar. Geçmişle ve bugünle olan ilişkisini Toynbee şöyle ifade eder: “Bir ayağım her zaman bugünde, bir ayağım geçmişte olmuştur.” Onun bir ayağını yaşadığı zamanda bulundurmaya özen göstermesi Batı medeniyetinin karşı karşıya bulunduğu tehlikeler konusundaki hassasiyetini gösterir. Toynbee’ye göre intihara eğilimli Batı medeniyetini tehdit eden başlıca unsurlar nükleer savaş, teknoloji, uzay keşifleri, aşırı tüketim, hırs, aşırı nüfus artışı, çevre kirliliği, kaos, ahlâkî çöküntü ve benmerkezciliktir (egosantrizm). Medeniyetlerin doğuşlarından çöküşlerine kadar geçen süreçler birbirine benzemektedir. 1. Gelişme çağı. Bu evrede medeniyetler fizikî çevreleri üzerinde hâkimiyet kurar. 2. Kargaşa zamanı. Bu evrede bozulma sel, kıtlık, istilâ neticesinde değil toplumların kendi kendilerini yok eden eylemleri sonucu gerçekleşmektedir. 3. Evrensel devlet süreci. Bu aşamada yükselme nihayete erer, kargaşaya son vermek için büyük bir çaba gösterilir. Muhafazakâr bir nitelik arzeden bu evrede medeniyet donmuş haldedir. 4. Hükümdarsız -ara/fetret- dönem neticesinde gelen parçalanma ve yok olma.
Eserleri. Medeniyet tarihinden felsefeye, din ve ahlâktan seyahat kitaplarına kadar çok geniş bir alanda eser veren Toynbee’nin çalışmalarını şu başlıklar altında gruplandırmak mümkündür: I. Dünya Savaşı sırasında İngiliz istihbaratı için yaptığı çalışmalar, A Study of History , Greko-Romen araştırmaları, The Royal Institute of International Affairs bünyesinde gerçekleştirdiği yayınlar, din meselesi ekseninde kaleme aldığı eserler, gezi kitapları, otobiyografik ve biyografik eserler, yaşadığı dönemin güncel siyasal tartışmalarıyla ilgili yayınları.
1. A Study of History . Eserin ilk hazırlıklarını I. Dünya Savaşı yıllarında yapmış, 1921’de yazmaya başlamış ve 1934-1961 yılları arasında on iki cilt halinde yayımlamıştır (I-III, London 1934; IV-VI, London 1939; VII-X, London 1954; XI, London 1956; XII, London 1961). Birçok dile çevrilen ve özellikle Amerika’da büyük yankı uyandıran bu çalışmanın ilk altı cildi D. C. Somervell tarafından özetlenerek tek cilt halinde neşredilmiştir (London 1946). Toynbee de eserini Jane Caplan ile gözden geçirip kısaltarak bir cilt halinde yeniden yayımlamış (London 1972), bu eser Tarih Bilinci başlığıyla Türkçe’ye çevrilmiştir (trc. Murat Belge, İstanbul 1975). Kitabın iki cilt halinde basılmış bir çevirisi daha vardır (İstanbul 1978).
2. The World and the West (London 1953). Kendine geçmiş-bugün-gelecek arasında ahlâkçı-tarihçi bir rol biçen ve düşüncelerini 1952’de İngiliz radyosunda yaptığı konuşmalarda geniş kitlelere ulaştıran Toynbee geçmişteki saldırganlıkların en büyük sorumlusu olarak Batı medeniyetini gösterir. Sovyet Sosyalist Cumhuriyetleri Birliği’nin, Batı’dan ödünç aldığı “sapkın” bir inanç olan komünizmi Batılı liberal değerlere karşı bir silâh şeklinde kullanmasının Batı medeniyeti için büyük bir tehlike yarattığını ileri sürer. Eser bu radyo konuşmalarından meydana gelmiştir (trc. Abdullah Zerrar, Dünya, Batı ve İslam , İstanbul 2002).
3. America and the World Revolution (New York 1962). Müellif bu çalışmasında Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nin birden zenginleşen sonradan görme bir ülke olduğunu ifade eder. Ona göre Amerika artık dünya devriminin ilham kaynağı ve öncüsü değil evrensel karşı-devrim hareketinin lideridir ve kendi çıkarlarının savunuculuğunu yapmaktadır. Amerika eskiden Roma’nın temsil ettiği şeyi temsil etmekte, bolluğun cezasını çekmekte ve giderek dünyanın geri kalan kısmından kopmaktadır.
Toynbee’nin diğer başlıca eserleri şunlardır: Turkey (Kenneth P. Kirkwood ile, Londra, Benn 1926; Türkiye. Bir Devletin Yeniden Doğuşu , trc. Kasım Yargıcı, İstanbul 1971; Kasım Yargıcı – M. Ali Yalman, Türkiye ve Avrupa , İstanbul 2002; Hülya Karaca, Türkiye. İmparatorluktan Cumhuriyete Geçiş Serüveni , İstanbul 2003). Survey of International Affairs , Royal Institute of International Affairs, yıllık, 1925-1946; Civilization on Trial (London 1948; trc. Ufuk Uyan, Medeniyet Yargılanıyor , İstanbul 1980; Kasım Yargıcı – M. Ali Yalman, Uygarlık Yargılanıyor , İstanbul 2004); Greek Historical Thought from Homer to the Age of Heraclius (London-Toronto 1950); An Historian’s Approach to the Religion (London 1956; Fransızca’dan trc. İbrahim Canan, Tarihçi Açısından Din , İstanbul 1978); Christianity Among the Religions of the World (New York 1957; trc. Mehmet Aydın, Hıristiyanlık ve Dünya Dinleri , Konya 2000); Hellenism: The History of a Civilization (New York 1959); Change and Habit. The Challenge of our Time (London 1966); Acquaintances (London 1967; trc. Deniz Öktem, Hatıralar: Tanıdıklarım , İstanbul 2005); Some Problems of Greek History (London-New York-Oxford 1969); Experiences (Oxford 1969).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
P. Geyl, Debates with Historians , London 1955, s. 91-178.
A. Hourani, A Vision of History: Near Eastern and Other Essays , Beirut 1961, s. 1-34.
K. Winetrout, “Toynbee, Arnold”, Thinkers of the 20th Century (ed. E. Devine v.dğr.), New Delhi 1987, s. 574-576.
“Toynbee, Arnold Joseph”, The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians (ed. J. Cannon), Oxford 1988, s. 416-417.
Kemalettin Parlak, Arnold J. Toynbee ve Batı Medeniyeti Karşısında Osmanlı İmparatorluğu (yüksek lisans tezi, 1993), İÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
Türkkaya Ataöv, “History and Prof. Toynbee. A Critique of Western Interpretation”, Milletlerarası Münasebetler Türk Yıllığı , IX, Ankara 1968, s. 40-63.
R. Clogg, “Politics and the Academy: Arnold Toynbee and the Koraes Chair”, MES , XXI/4 (1985), s. vix, 1-117.
Kubilay Aysevener, “Arnold J. Toynbee’nin Tarih Görüşü”, Felsefe Dünyası , sy. 6, Ankara 1992, s. 55-66.
“Toynbee’nin Gözünde Türkler” (trc. Azmi Özcan), İzlenim, sy. 11, İstanbul 1993, s. 60-64.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2012 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 41. cildinde, 272-274 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.